



Copyiiglit^ 



CQEKK5HT DEPOSm 



A TEXT-BOOK 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE 



OF 



VETERINARY MEDICINE 



BY 

DAVID S. WHITE, D.V.M. 

DEAN OF THE COLLEGE AND PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN THE OHIO 
STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO 




LEA & FEBIGER 

PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK 
1917 






Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1917, by 

LEA & FEBIGER, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress. All rights reserved. 



/L 



JAN 31 1917 

©CU455381 



PREFACE. 



The need of an up-to-date, scientific text designed for 
student use has been long felt by teachers of the internal 
diseases of animals. The author has personally experienced 
this need as a teacher of veterinary students for over twenty 
years. The few books available on the subject are either 
obsolete or so filled with errors that they mislead rather than 
instruct. Some of the best of them are translations from the 
German and French. In too many instances the translators 
have been neither veterinarians nor teachers of veterinary 
medicine, and too few of them linguists. Furthermore, the 
books in this field have not been designed for undergraduate 
students; they are bulky, comprehensive works of reference 
of little pedagogic value; all of them have been superseded 
by newer editions in the original tongue. 

Although this volume is designed primarily for the student, 
it will be found valuable to the practitioner, investigator or 
intelligent stockman who may have need of knowledge of 
the fundamental principles of the practice of veterinary 
medicine presented in concise, clear-cut and at the same time 
not too dogmatic form. 

While the author has many to thank for assistance in 
preparing this volume, among his fellow teachers, investi- 
gators and practitioners, he is especially indebted to Professor 
D. H. Udall, of the New York State Veterinary College, 
Cornell University, who kindly read the manuscript and 
offered many valuable suggestions from his rich experience, 
practically all of which have been incorporated in the book. 
Messrs. Lea & Febiger are also thanked for their patience, 
courtesy and efficient service in making the edition mechanic- 
ally good. D. S. W. 

Columbus, Ohio, 1917. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 
CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of the Nose and Adjacent Sinuses. 

1. Rhinitis 17 

Catarrhal 17 

Croupous 20 

Diphtheritic 20 

Follicular 21 

2. Epistaxis 22 

3. Infectious Rhinitis of Swine 23 

4. Animal Parasites in the Nose and Sinuses of the Head 

(CEstrus ovis) 24 

5. Catarrh of the Maxillary and Frontal Sinuses ..... 26 

6. Catarrh of the Guttural Pouches 27 

7. Tympany of the Guttural Pouch 27 

CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of the Larynx. 

1. Laryngitis 28 

Catarrhal 28 

Croupous 30 

Edematous 31 

2. Paralysis of the Recurrent Nerve (Roaring) 32 

3. Tumors in the Larynx 34 



vi CONTENTS 

CHAPTER III. 

Diseases of the Bronchi. 

1. Catarrhal Bronchitis . 35 

2. Verminous, Bronchitis 38 

CHAPTER IV. 

Diseases of the Ltjngs. 

1. Congestion of the Lungs 41 

2. Pulmonary Edema 41 

3. Bronchopulmonary Hemorrhage 43 

4. Pulmonary Gangrene 44 

5. Abscess of the Lung 45 

6. Chronic Alveolar Emphysema 46 

7. Acute Interstitial Pulmonary Emphysema 48 

8. Pneumonia 49 

Fibrinous 49 

Catarrhal 54 

Foreign-body 57 

Metastatic 58 

Interstitial ■ _ 59 

9. Tumors in the Lung 60 

CHAPTER V. 

Diseases of the Pleura. 

1. Pleuritis 61 

2. Hydrothorax 66 

3. Pneumothorax 66 



PART II. 

DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 

CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of the Heart Sac. 

1. Pericarditis 69 

2. Hydropericardium 71 

3. Pneumopericardium 72 

4. Hemopericardium ; 72 



CONTENTS vil 



CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of the Heart. 

1. Nervous Palpitation of the Heart 73 

2. Slow Heart Beat (Bradycardia) 74 

3. Intermittent Heart Beat 74 

4. Hypertrophy and Dilatation of the Heart 75 

5. Myocarditis 76 

6. Endocarditis 77 

Acute . 77 

Chronic 79 

7. Rupture of the Heart 80 

8. Aneurysm of the Aorta 80 

9. Tumors in the Heart 81 



PART III. 

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of the Mouth. 

1. Stomatitis 83 

Catarrhal 83 

Vesicular 85 

Papulous 86 

Mycotic 87 

CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of the Pharynx. 

1. Pharyngitis 89 

Catarrhal 89 

Suppurative 89 

Croupous 90 

Diphtheritic 90 

2. Paralysis of the Pharynx 91 

3. Parasites in the Pharynx 93 



Vin CONTENTS 

CHAPTER III. 

Diseases of the Stomach and Bowels. 

1. Gastro-intestinal Catarrh of the Horse 94 

2. Bloating in the Ox 97 

3. Chronic or Habitual Tympany 100 

4. So-called Colics of the Horse ■ . . 101 

Acute Dilatation of the Stomach 103 

Simple Impaction of the Intestines 106 

Impaction of the Small Bowel 106 

Impaction of the Large Bowel 108 

Impaction Complicated with Abnormal Displacement . 110 

Displacement of Large Bowel 110 

Displacement of Small Bowel Ill 

Embolic Colic Ill 

Spasmodic Colic 113 

Worm Colic .113 

5. Gastro-intestinal Catarrh of the Ox 114 

6. Gastro-intestinal Catarrh of Sucklings 118 

7. Gastro-enteritis 120 

Simple 121 

Croupous 124 

Mycotic . 125 

Toxic • 128 

8. Traumatic Indigestion of the Ox 128 

CHAPTER IV. 

Animal Parasites in the Stomach. 

1. Gastrophilus (Bots) 132 

2. Spiroptera 133 

Animal Parasites in the Intestines. 

1. Tapeworms (Cestodes) 133 

2. Round-worms (Ascarides) 135 

3. Palisade-worms in the Intestines 136 

Strongylus Armatus in the Horse ....... 136 

Strongylus Tetracanthus in the Horse 137 

Strongylus Contortus in Sheep 138 

Strongylus Convolutus in the Ox 138 

4. (Esophagostoma in the Intestines . . . . . . . . 138 

5. Echinorhynchus Gigas of Swine 140 

6. Oxyuris Curvula 140 

7. Uncinariasis 141 



CONTENTS IX 



CHAPTER V. 

Diseases of the Liver. 

1. Jaundice 142 

Obstructive . 142 

Malignant 143 

of Newborn 143 

2. Hepatitis 144 

Parenchymatous 144 

Chronic Interstitial 145 

Purulent 146 

3. The Liver Fluke Disease (Distomatosis) ...... 147 

4. Echinococcus Disease of the Liver . 148 

5. Rupture of the Liver 150 

6. Necrosis of the Liver . 150 

7. Amyloid. Liver 151 

8. Carcinoma of the Liver 151 

9. Gall-stones (Cholelithiasis) 151 

10. Parasites in the Liver 151 

CHAPTER VI. 

Diseases of the Peritoneum. 

1. Peritonitis 152 

2. Ascites 155 

3. Tumors in the Peritoneum 157 

4. Animal Parasites in the Peritoneum . 157 



PART IV. 

DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. 

1. Puerperal Septicemia 159 

2. Parturient Paresis (Milk Fever) 161 

3. Abnormalities in Sexual Desire 163 

Nymphomania (Satyriasis) 163 

Diminished Sexual Desire 165 

4. Sterility 165 

5. Impotency 167 



CONTENTS 



PART V. 

DISEASES OF THE BLOOD AND BLOOD-PRODUCING 

ORGANS. 

1. Anemia 169 

2. Leukemia . . 170 

3. Pseudoleukemia (Hodgkin's Disease) 172 

4. Hydremia 173 

5. Hemophilia 173 

6. Scurvy 173 

7. Infectious Anemia of the Horse (Swamp Fever) .... 174 

8. Azoturia 179 



PART VI. 

DISEASES OF METABOLISM. 
CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of Metabolism. 

1. Diabetes 185 

Diabetes Insipidus 185 

Diabetes Mellitus 186 

2. Gout 186 

3. Obesity 186 

4. Pica (Licking Disease) 187 

5. Wool Eating 188 

CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of Metabolism Affecting Principally the Bones. 

1. Rachitis (Rickets) 189 

2. Osteomalacia 190 



CONTENTS xi 

PART VII. 

DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION. 

1. Muscular Rheumatism 193 

2. Articular Rheumatism 194 

3. Trichinosis 196 

4. Hog Measles (Cysticercus Cellulosse) 197 

5. Cysticercus Inermis 198 

6. Miescher's Tubules 198 



PART VIII. 

DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS. 

1. Nephritis 199 

Acute Parenchymatous 199 

Chronic Interstitial 201 

Purulent 202 

Pyelonephritis 203 

Bacterial 203 

Calculous 204 

2. Uremia 205 

3. Hyperemia of the Kidneys 206 

4. Renal Hemorrhage 206 

5. Amyloid Kidney 207 

6. Kidney Tumors 207 

7. Hydronephrosis (Cystic Kidney) 207 

8. Hematuria 208 

9. Hemoglobinuria 208 

10. Parasites in the Kidney 208 

Eustrongylus Gigas 208 



Xll 



CONTENTS 



PART IX. 

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

CHAPTER I. 

Diseases of the Brain. 

General 209 

1. Anemia of the Brain and its Membranes 211 

2. Congestion of the Brain and its Membranes 212 

3. Sun- and Heatstroke 213 

4. Traumatic Injury and Concussion of the Brain .... 214 

5. Lightning and Electric Stroke 215 

6. Hemorrhage in the Brain and its Membranes (Apoplexy) . 216 

7. Meningo-encephalitis 217 

8. Encephalitis 221 

Non-suppurative . . 221 

Suppurative .......' 223 

9. Infectious Meningo-encephalomyelitis (Borna Disease) . . 225 

10. Chronic Hydrocephalus 227 

11. Brain Tumors - . 228 

12. Gid of Sheep 229 

13. Infectious Bulbar Paralysis 231 

CHAPTER II. 

Diseases of the Spinal Cord. 

1. Traumatic Injury of the Spinal Cord 234 

2. Inflammation of Coverings of the Cord 236 

3. Inflammation of Substance of the Cord (Spinal Myelitis) . 238 

4. Compression of the Spinal Cord 240 

5. Infectious Spinal Paralysis of the Horse 242 

CHAPTER III. 

Functional Nervous Diseases. 



1. Vertigo 


. . . . . 244 


2. Epilepsy 


245 


3. Eclampsia . f 


246 


4. Catalepsy 


246 


5. Chorea 


247 


6. Spasms of the Diaphragm 


247 



CONTENTS xiii 



PART X. 

DISEASES OE THE SKIN. 

1. Eczema 249 

Horse 251 

Ox 251 

Swine 252 

2. Urticaria 255 

3. Alopecia . 256 

4. Erythema 257 

5. Pruritus 257 

6. Trichorrhexis Nodosa 258 

7. Acne 258 

8. Pemphigus 258 

9. Mange (Scabies) 259 

Horse . 260 

Sheep 261 

Cattle . . . 264 

Swine 264 

10. Herpes (Ringworm) 265 

11. Favus 267 

12. Contagious Pustulous Dermatitis 267 

13. Hypoderma Lineatum (Warble Flies) 268 

14. Lice 269 

15. Ticks 270 

16. Screw Fly (Compsomyia Macellaria) 270 

17. Chicken Lice (Dermonyssus Avium) 270 

18. Skin Filaria 270 

Filaria Irritans 271 

Filaria Hemorrhagica 271 

19. Lip-and-leg Ulceration of Sheep 272 

20. Bighead of Sheep 275 



xiv CONTENTS 

PART XI. 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 
CHAPTER I. 

Acute General Infectious Diseases. 

1. Anthrax 279 

2. Malignant Edema 285 

3. Black-leg 287 

4. Braxy (Gastromycosis Ovis) 290 

5. Swine Erysipelas 292 

6. Hemorrhagic Septicemia 295 

of Cattle 296 

Septic Pleuropneumonia of Calves 299 

of Sheep 300 

7. Takosis of Angora Goats 303 

8. Septicemic Diseases of Newborn Animals 305 

Dysentery of Sucklings 305 

Pyosepticemia of Sucklings - 308 

9. Influenza of the Horse 313 

10. Infectious Fibrinous Pneumonia of the Horse 319 

11. Purpura Hemorrhagica 322 

12. Hog cholera 327 

13. Rinderpest 333 

14. African Horse-sickness 337 

15. Heartwater . 338 

CHAPTER II. 

Acute Ex anthem atous Infectious Diseases. 

1. Variola (Pox) 339 

of Sheep 340 

of Cow 343 

of Horse 345 

2. Foot-and-mouth Disease 345 

3. Contagious Stomatitis of the Horse 352 

4. Coital Exanthema 355 



CONTENTS xv 

CHAPTER III. 

Acute Infectious Diseases Localized in Certain Organs. 

1. Strangles 358 

2. Malignant Head Catarrh of the Ox 366 

3. Necrotic Stomatitis of Calves (Calf Diphtheria) .... 369 

4. Contagious Pleuropneumonia of Cattle 371 

CHAPTER IV. 

Infectious Diseases Involving Principally the Nervous 
System. 

1. Tetanus , 376 

2. Rabies 382 

CHAPTER V. 
Chronic Infectious Diseases. 

1. Tuberculosis , .... 389 

2. Intestinal Paratuberculosis (Johne's Disease) 410 

3. Caseous Lymphadenitis of Sheep 412 

4. Actinomycosis 413 

5. Glanders 417 

6. Epizootic Lymphangitis 427 

7. Ulcerous Lymphangitis of the Horse 429 

8. Infectious Abortion 430 

9. Infectious Granular Vaginitis of Cattle 436 

CHAPTER VI. 
Infectious Diseases due to Protozoa. 

1. Piroplasmoses 439 

Piroplasmosis of Cattle (Texas Fever) 440 

Piroplasmosis of European Cattle 446 

East African Coast Fever 448 

Piroplasmosis of Horse 449 

Piroplasmosis of Sheep . 450 

2. Trypanosomiasis 451 

Dourine 451 

Surra 456 

Nagana . 457 

Mai de Caderas 458 

3. Coccidiosis 459 



PART I. 
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 



CHAPTER I. 

DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND ADJACENT 

SINUSES. 

RHINITIS. NASAL CATARRH. 

Forms. — Depending upon the degree of inflammation the 
following clinical forms of rhinitis may be distinguished : 
Catarrhal (acute and chronic) . 
Croupous. 
Diphtheritic. 
Follicular. 
Acute Nasal Catarrh (Rhinitis, Acute Coryza). — Definition. 
— An acute catarrh of the air passages of the head. It may 
occur as a "primary affection or may be secondary to another 
disease. 

Etiology. — Primary. — It is rarely due to the inhalation of 
foreign matter such as dust, chaff, grains, seeds, etc. Sponges 
placed in the nostrils to prevent discharge or to reduce the 
sound in roaring is an infrequent cause. Irritants, fumes, 
gases or smoke occasionally produce it. The common predis- 
posing cause is cold. Rhinitis is most frequent during the 
changeable weather of the late fall and early spring. The 
exciting cause is undoubtedly infection. 

Secondary. — Nearly all of the diseases of the respiratory 
tract are accompanied by rhinitis, as are specific infectious 
diseases such as strangles, influenza, hog cholera, glanders. 
2 



18 DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND ADJACENT SINUSES 

Symptoms. — The general condition of the patient is usually 
somewhat disturbed; it seems stupid, languid, and shows 
slight fever. The mucous membrane of the nose is swollen 
and reddened and at first drier than normal; later an irritant, 
watery discharge appears, which in a day or two becomes 
turbid and more profuse. In the earlier stages the patient 
sneezes frequently and rubs its nose against objects. The 
nasal discharge dries and forms crusts at the openings of the 
nostrils. In exceptional cases small round superficial erosions 
are noted on the mucous membrane, which usually heal in a 
few days. In severe cases there is conjunctivitis present. 
If the larynx is involved there is cough; if the pharynx, 
difficulty in swallowing. The submaxillary lymph glands 
in the horse are slightly swollen. 

Course. — The course is usually rapid and the termination 
favorable. The condition in ordinary cases disappears in 
seven to ten days. 

Treatment. — The acute catarrh seldom requires treatment. 
Protecting the patient from draughts and dust is all that is 
necessary in the average case. When, however, the dis- 
charge is profuse or the patient shows fever, injections into 
the nostrils of 1 to 2 per cent, creolin solution are recom- 
mendable. Inhalations of volatile substances are of value. 
Turpentine or benzoin (1 to 5 per cent, in form of steam) 
may be tried. The crust on the nostrils may be greased 
with vaseline. In man the "snuffing" of the fluidextract 
of hamamelis every two or three hours is much employed. 

Chronic Nasal Catarrh (Chronic Rhinitis, Ozena). — Chronic 
rhinitis rarely develops from the acute. This form is nearly 
always secondary to some other disease involving the 
respiratory tract. 

Etiology. — Bad teeth with filling of the maxillary or frontal 
sinuses with pus. It may also accompany glanders, tumors 
(polypi) in the nostrils, animal parasites (estrus larvre in 
sheep), chronic bronchitis, verminous bronchitis. In surgical 
conditions of the head such as necrosis of the turbinated 
bone, empyema of the sinuses, etc., nasal catarrh is noted. 

Symptoms. — The principal symptom is nasal discharge, 
which varies greatly in quantity and character. The 



RHINITIS— NASAL CATARRH 19 

discharge may be quite copious, or, on the other hand, very 
limited. As a rule, even in a given patient, the discharge 
is greater at times (after a long drive and when the horse 
is unreined). In character the discharge may be mucous 
and viscid, or purulent or even blood-streaked (glanders, 
polypi). It is often fetid (teeth, necrosis of turbinated 
bones, polypi). The discharge, if limited, may dry at the 
nostril openings, forming green to brownish crusts (glanders) 
or it may flow over the upper lip depigmenting the skin 
over which it passes. 

The mucous membrane assumes usually a leaden hue, 
although it may appear brown. It is at times swollen, nodu- 
lar and pitted with round erosions or superficial ulcers. The 
swelling may interfere with breathing, causing nasal dyspnea 
with sound, heard particularly at inspiration. From a filling 
and distention of the turbinal bones with exudate the 
nasal septum may become atrophic and distorted through 
pressure leading to partial occlusion of the nasal passages. 
The submaxillary lymph glands become indurated and 
enlarged but usually do not adhere to the jaw. 

Diagnosis. — While the diagnosis of chronic catarrhal rhi- 
nitis is not difficult, to determine whether it is primary or 
secondary often requires careful judgment. A thorough 
inspection of the teeth should be made in all cases, especially 
where the discharge is fetid and unilateral. Tumors may 
often be felt with the aid of a urinary horse catheter or 
nasal tube. A veterinary rhinolaryngoscope (Polonsky- 
Schindelka) is useful in diagnosis. If the tumor is of con- 
siderable size, the air current from the partially occluded 
nostril will be less in volume. A sudden increase in the 
discharge when the head is lowered after a drive speaks for 
sinus empyema or more rarely filling of the guttural pouches. 
Where glanders is suspected the complement-fixation, mal- 
lein, agglutination, precipitin or guinea-pig tests may be 
applied. (See Glanders.) 

Treatment. — The treatment of chronic nasal catarrh is 
largely surgical (trephining sinuses, extraction of diseased 
teeth, removal of tumor, etc.). At any rate it is governed 
by the primary disease which the discharge accompanies. 



20 DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND ADJACENT SINUSES 

The local treatment of the nose by irrigation or inhalation 
is of little value except in purely primary cases and then it 
must be persisted in for weeks before permanent healing is 
affected. The following combination may be tried: 

1$ — Tannoformi 5vj 

Mentholi 5ss 

Alcohol (50 per cent.) Oj 

Aqua dest Oss 

M. D. S. — Apply as a nasal douche. 

Croupous Rhinitis. — Definition. — An inflammation of the 
mucous membrane of the nasal chamber with the formation 
of pseudomembrane. 

Occurrence. — Seen in the horse and ox. Enzootics have 
been noted in the horse. 

Etiology. — It is attributed to the inhaling of irritant gases 
and smoke. It is undoubtedly due in many cases to micro- 
organisms. It may follow suppurative mastitis or metritis 
in the mare and cow, and may be secondary to malignant 
head catarrh, purpura hemorrhagica, and strangles. 

Symptoms. — An intense inflammation of the mucous 
membrane which is deep red and greatly swollen. Patches 
of gray or yellow red fibrinous membranes form. The 
false membrane sloughs off in a few days leaving behind 
raw bleeding surfaces which soon heal without scar. There 
is a free discharge, which may be blood-streaked and contain- 
ing shreds of croupous membrane. The submaxillary 
lymph glands and vessels are swollen and sensitive. There 
may be nasal dyspnea. Temperature is elevated. 

Course. — Usually ends in healing in about one week. , 

Treatment. — It is recommended to touch the affected 
parts with hydrogen dioxide, full strength, to each 2 ounces 
of which has been added a dram of sodium bicarbonate. 
Do not forcibly remove the membranes. Affected animals 
should be isolated. 

Diphtheritic Rhinitis. — Definition. — A necrotic inflamma- 
tion of the mucous membrane of the nasal cavities. 

Occurrence. — Seen in horses and cattle. It is usually 
secondary to such infectious diseases as acute glanders, 
purpura hemorrhagica, malignant head catarrh. 



RHINITIS— NASAL CATARRH 21 

Etiology. — A primary diphtheritic rhinitis may result from 
the action of any mechanical, thermic, chemical or infectious 
irritant which is sufficiently intensive to destroy the mucous 
membrane. In all probability the necrosis bacillus is a 
factor. As noted, diphtheritic rhinitis may be secondary to 
certain infectious diseases. 

Symptoms. — The condition is characterized by the appear- 
ance of yellowish-gray patches in the mucosa which when 
detached or sloughed leave behind deep, dark red or grayish- 
red ulcers. The borders of the ulcers are thickened and 
surrounded by a zone of reactive inflammation. The 
submaxillary lymph glands are swollen. 

Diagnosis. — Glanders should be thought of and excluded 
before a diagnosis of "primary diphtheritic rhinitis" is made. 
In purpura hemorrhagica the differential diagnosis is less 
difficult (petechia?, typical cutaneous swellings). The eye 
affection absent in primary nasal diphtheritis is characteristic 
of malignant head catarrh of cattle. 

Treatment. — See Croupous Rhinitis. 

Follicular Rhinitis (Pustulous Coryza). — Definition. — An 
inflammation of the nasal mucous membrane involving 
particularly the mucous glands forming pustules and later 
ulcers. The sebaceous glands of the skin of the nostrils 
may also become affected. 

Occurrence. — Peculiar to the horse. It may occur enzo- 
otically. 

Etiology. — Undoubtedly microorganisms. The Strepto- 
coccus equi has been accused. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are those of a severe nasal 
catarrh with the presence of numerous small nodules of the 
size of flea-bite which appear on the nasal septum. By con- 
fluence large nodules may form. The nodules soon undergo 
puriform softening, become yellow and form ulcers which 
heal in a few days without leaving a scar. A similar erup- 
tion may occur on the skin of the nostrils and lips. The 
lymph vessels of the cheek are sometimes greatly distended, 
abscesses forming rapidly along their course. The sub- 
maxillary lymph glands become enlarged and sensitive. A 
follicular (granular) conjunctivitis may be present. 



22 DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND ADJACENT SINUSES 

Diagnosis. — The disease might be confused with glanders. 
The benign course and rapid, clean healing of the ulcers 
make the differentiation not difficult. 

Treatment. — Treat as in catarrhal rhinitis. Ulcers may 
be dressed with any strew-powder (iodoform, compound alum 
powder, etc.). The swollen lymph vessels may be smeared 
with gray mercurial ointment. 

EPISTAXIS. 

Definition. — Bleeding from the nose. 

Etiology. — (a) Heredity. — In some families of horses it 
is an inherited predisposition. In such cases (hemophilia?) 
epistaxis occurs without apparent cause. It may follow 
overexertion in race horses (predisposition?). 

(b) Traumatism. — Epistaxis commonly results from direct 
or indirect traumatism. Passing objects up into the nostrils 
(sponges, straw whisps, nasal tubes, etc.) is often followed 
by bleeding. In forcibly ejecting dust and foreign matter 
from the nose horses sometimes induce hemorrhage. Frac- 
tures of the jaw (maxillary process) and of the base of the 
cranium may be followed by nosebleed. 

(c) Heart and Lung Diseases. — In animals suffering from 
chronic heart and lung diseases this diathesis is present. 

(d) Pressure on Jugulars. — Continued pressure on the 
jugulars may be a cause. 

(e) Infectious Diseases. — In many of the acute infectious 
diseases it is a symptom (anthrax, purpura hemorrhagica, 
glanders, septicemia), and in such blood diseases as leukemia, 
pseudoleukemia, anemia, etc. 

(/) Tumors. — Tumors in the nasal chambers (angiomas, 
sarcomas) induce bleeding. 

Symptoms. — The blood either drops from the nostril or 
flows in a thin stream. It is not foamy and not attended by 
dyspnea. There are no general symptoms unless the hemor- 
rhage is copious or recurs frequently where it causes general 
anemia (pale mucous membranes, small rapid pulse, anxious 
expression, dyspnea). Repeated hemorrhages at frequent 
intervals may become fatal in six to nine days. 



INFECTIOUS RHINITIS OF SWINE 23 

Diagnosis. — It is usually not difficult to determine the 
origin of the hemorrhage but to find the cause may require 
a most careful examination of the patient. Pulmonary hem- 
orrhages are characterized by a bright red, foamy bilateral 
nasal discharge accompanied by cough, dyspnea, and weak 
pulse. On auscultation of the chest, rales are heard. How- 
ever, if from a nasal hemorrhage some of the blood is aspirated 
into the lungs, symptoms of pulmonary hemorrhage may be 
simulated, complicating the diagnosis. In gastric hemor- 
rhage the blood is more or less clotted, brown in color, of 
acid reaction, and mixed with food particles. In the horse 
and ox it may be ejected thrbugh the nostrils, but in the 
hog and in carnivora it is vomited through the mouth. 

Treatment. — The patient should be kept in a cool quiet 
place. If the hemorrhage is severe enough to warrant it, 
inject into the nostrils adrenalin in salt solution (1 to 5000). 
Tincture of ferric chlorid is serviceable. If injections do 
not suffice, tampon the nostril or nostrils with gauze soaked 
in adrenalin. In the horse and ox tracheotomy should 
be performed before plugging both nostrils. Intravenous 
injection of a 2 per cent, gelatin solution in salt solution has 
been effective. In slight hemorrhages turpentine may be 
given internally. When bleeding comes from an angioma 
in the septum, touching with lunar caustic may stop it. 

INFECTIOUS RHINITIS OF SWINE. 

Definition. — An infectious disease of the nose, ethmoid and 
brain of young pigs due to the Pseudomonas pyocyaneus, 
the microorganism of blue pus. 

Natural Infection. — Takes place through the nose from the 
pigs rooting in infected straw, manure, etc. 

Symptoms. — The prodromal symptoms are those of fever 
(loss of appetite, languor). Nasal symptoms soon appear. 
The patient passes air rapidly in and out of the nostrils, 
producing a snorting or sniffling sound; the snout is fre- 
quently rubbed against objects. There is bloody nasal 
discharge mixed with pus. The snout becomes edematous 
and swollen. In severe cases on about the third day of the 



24 DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND ADJACENT SINUSES 

attack symptoms of cerebral excitement occur, the pig 
showing rabiform symptoms and convulsions. 

Course. — The usual course of the disease is from two 
to seven days. Sometimes it assumes a chronic form. 
Recovery is rare. 

Diagnosis. — The high fever, rhinitis with pronounced brain 
symptoms and without deformity (bulging) of the facial 
bones are characteristic. It is distinguished from rachitis 
by the absence of fever, facial deformity and dropping of the 
hard palate in this disease. Actinomycosis and tubercu- 
losis may cause thickening of the snout and nasal discharge 
in swine. The course, however, is chronic and there is no 
nasal hemorrhage. In doubtful cases a microscopic and 
bacteriological examination of the discharge may be made. 
It might be confused with hyperacute cases of hog cholera, 
in which at times epistaxis and brain symptoms occur. 
The epizootic character of this disease, the bowel lesions 
on postmortem and the absence of rhinitis make the differ- 
entiation usually easy. 

Treatment. — Of little avail. In valuable pigs irrigating the 
nostrils with bichlorid solution (1 to 1000) may be tried. 
It is usually better to slaughter the affected animals and 
thoroughly disinfect the pens. As the disease is spread by 
the infected nasal discharge, a separation of the healthy from 
the sick is indicated. 

ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE NOSE AND SINUSES 
OF THE HEAD. 

Grub in the Head of Sheep. (Estrus Ovis. 

Definition. — A catarrh of the nasal chambers and sinuses 
of the head due to the larvae of the bot fly, (Estrus ovis. 

Occurrence. — Found in all countries where the sheep bot 
exists. Australia is said to be exempt. Few American 
sheep are free from grub. 

Etiology. — The sheep are usually attacked by the parent 
bot fly during the hot season. It is said that the fly may 
even be active in winter in warm, sunny sheep folds. 



ANIMAL PARASITES IN NOSE AND SINUSES OF HEAD 25 

Life History. — The larvae are deposited by the swift-flying 
female bot on the margin of the sheep's nostrils, from whence 
they crawl up into the nasal chambers, cavities of the turbi- 
nal bones, ethmoid cells and even horn cores. It is possible 
that the brain is invaded in some cases. They attach them- 
selves to the mucous membrane to feed and develop. They 
usually remain in the sheep about ten months, or until the 
following spring when they leave via nasal passages and 
reach the ground. In the soil in one or two days they pass 
into the chrysalis form out of which emerges in six to eight 
weeks the mature bot fly. The impregnated female bot 
seeks sheep herds. She usually hides in cracks and crevices 
in the sheep barn or on shrubbery or underbrush near the 
sheep pasture. Sheep try to avoid the attacks of the fly 
by running away from it with their noses held close to the 
ground or by grouping themselves in a great mass, their 
heads toward the centre. If the fly touches the nostril, the 
sheep will snort, stamp its feet and rub its nose on the fore- 
legs or ground. They often seek dusty places in the pasture 
to avoid the fly. Once the larvae have gotten into the head, 
however, the sheep become quiet and remain so until the 
emigration of the parasite begins. 

Symptoms. — If only one or two grubs are present, beyond a 
slight nasal discharge, the sheep may show no symptoms. 
When large numbers are in the head, however, the patients 
show profuse mucopurulent or even bloody nasal discharge, 
sneezing, snorting, sniffling, shaking the head and rubbing 
the nose against objects. In severe cases symptoms of 
vertigo occur, the patient staggering, reeling, and falling 
to the ground. Sometimes fatal convulsions are noted. 
Conjunctivitis may be present. As a rule, however, in 
about ten days after the first signs appear, and the larvae 
are expelled, the symptoms subside. 

Diagnosis. — Grub-in-the-head may be confused with sturdy 
or gid (Ccenurus cerebralis). However, in sturdy the older 
sheep are attacked, there are no nasal symptoms and the 
forced movements of the patient are more pronounced. Gid 
is furthermore as yet an uncommon disease in the United 
States. In doubtful cases a postmortem or the micro- 
scopic examination of the discharge must decide. 



26 DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND ADJACENT SINUSES 

From verminous bronchitis it may be distinguished 
by the absence of the cough and rales on auscultation so 
characteristic of bronchitis. 

Treatment. — Very unsatisfactory. Trephining the sinuses 
and removing the larva? with forceps is only practicable in 
isolated cases and among valuable sheep. Nasal douches 
do not reach the larvae in the sinuses. In severe cases 
slaughter is the most economical disposition. 

Prevention. — It is recommended to place in the pasture 
field a log in which a number of 2-inch augur holes have 
been bored. Salt is put in the bottom of each hole and 
around the margin tar. When the sheep attempt to get the 
salt the nostril becomes tar-smeared,, which partially, at 
least, protects against the bot fly. Allowing the sheep 
constant access to lime is of some value. Plowing a few 
furrows in the pasture serves to furnish dust in which the 
sheep may burrow their noses to avoid the fly. 

CATARRH OF THE MAXILLARY AND FRONTAL 
SINUSES. 

Definition. — A collection of mucopurulent exudate in the 
sinuses of the head. 

Occurrence. — Commonest in the horse, but is seen in the 
ox. In cattle the frontal sinuses are usually involved. 

Etiology. — Most frequently due to diseases of the teeth 
(dental caries; alveolar periostitis). In cattle it may follow 
dehorning. Certain infectious diseases such as glanders, 
malignant head catarrh, etc., may induce it. 

Symptoms. — Nasal discharge which is often unilateral. It 
may be intermittent, copious or limited, and sometimes 
fetid. In some cases the bone covering the sinuses is atro- 
phied and bulged outward, distorting the face. There may 
be conjunctivitis and partial occlusion of the lacrimonasal 
duct. Swelling of submaxillary lymph gland of the affected 
side is usually noted. 

Diagnosis. — With a drill or gimlet bore into the suspected 
sinus. 

Treatment. — Surgical. 



TYMPANY OF GUTTURAL POUCH 27 

CATARRH OF THE GUTTURAL POUCHES. 

Definition. — An accumulation of exudate in the guttural 
pouches. In some cases the pouch is filled with solid, cheesy 
bodies, each of about the size of a bean (dried pus) . Disten- 
tion of the pouch with gas may result from a decomposition 
of the exudate. 

Etiology. —Rarely foreign bodies; spread of inflammation 
from neighboring organs; infection (glanders). 

Symptoms. — Similar to those of chronic nasal catarrh. 
Swallowing and breathing may be interfered with. Swelling 
in the subparotid region. 

Treatment. — Surgical. 

TYMPANY OF GUTTURAL POUCH. 

Definition. — A distention of the pouch with air or gas. 

Occurrence. — Colts born with it. In older horses may also 
occur secondary to catarrh of pouches. 

Etiology. — A congenital deformity of the tube or its valve. 
Secondary to catarrh of the pouches. 

Symptoms. — An elastic, pneumatic swelling in the parotid 
region. May induce dyspnea, roaring, and dysphagia. 
Nasal discharge may fail. 

Treatment. — Surgical. Rarely successful. 



CHAPTER II. 
DISEASES OF THE LARYNX. 

LARYNGITIS. 

Clinically laryngitis may be classified into: 
Catarrhal (acute and chronic). 
Croupous. 
Edematous. 

Catarrhal Laryngitis. — Definition. — A superficial inflamma- 
tion of the mucosa of the larynx. Usually the upper part 
of the trachea and often the pharynx are also involved 
(laryngotracheal, laryngopharyngitis) . 

Occurrence. — Catarrhal laryngitis is one of the commonest 
diseases of horses and cattle. It frequently assumes an 
enzootic form, being very prevalent during the changeable 
weather of spring and fall. The disease may be primary or 
secondary. 

Etiology. — The causes of primary laryngitis are : refrigera- 
tion, inhalation of irritant dust, gases, ingestion of ferment- 
ing foods (brewer's grains, distillery slops, potato residue), 
continued bellowing of cattle, throat latch of bridle too 
tight, and primary infections. 

Secondary laryngitis accompanies many of the infectious 
diseases, especially influenza and strangles of the horse, 
tuberculosis of the ox, cholera of swine, and verminous 
bronchitis of sheep. A spread of inflammation from neigh- 
boring organs (pharynx, trachea) may induce laryngitis. 
The causes of chronic catarrhal laryngitis are the same 
as those of the acute form, the irritant acting mildly but 
repeatedly or persistently. 

Symptoms. — A dominant symptom of laryngitis is a dry, 
harsh cough which the patient seeks to suppress. It is 
especially noticeable when the animal is brought out into 



LARYNGITIS 29 

cold air or given a cold drink of water. Excitement also 
induces cough. The larynx is sensitive to pressure which 
may bring about a paroxysm of coughing. In some patients 
hoarseness is evident. On auscultation over the larynx 
stenotic, rough, sometimes whistling tones are heard which 
tend to diminish in intensity toward the chest. Nasal 
discharge is usually present. If the pharynx is also involved 
(laryngopharyngitis) there will be dysphagia. The lymph 
glands of the submaxillary region are swollen and sensitive. 
Except in secondary laryngitis the pulse and temperature 
remain about normal. Dyspnea is only present when there 
is marked swelling of the mucosa. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis depends upon the presence of 
cough, sensitiveness of the larynx, mild fever, and the 
negative evidence adduced from a thorough examination 
of the lungs. Secondary laryngitis may be distinguished 
from primary forms by the high temperature, general depres- 
sion of the patient and symptoms of the primary disease. 

Course. — In acute, catarrhal laryngitis the course is usually 
six to ten days ending in complete recovery. Neglected cases 
may become chronic and last for months causing persistent, 
obstinate cough, but usually no further symptoms. 

Treatment. — The patient should be allowed fresh air (not 
too cold) free from draughts, dust, and stable gases. If the 
weather permits, exercise in the open should be allowed. 
In mild attacks horses may be employed at light work 
provided they are protected against high wind or drenching 
rains. The food should be laxative (roots, grass) and free 
from dust. 

Priessnitz applications to the throat are valuable. During 
the early stages inhalations of steam (camphor, turpentine, 
creolin) are of service. On the other hand, in the later 
stages when the mucosa is covered with tough mucus, such 
solvent agents as common salt solution or bicarbonate of 
sodium (1 to 3 per cent.) are effectual. If the exudate is 
abundant and fluid, astringents (alum 1 to 25 per cent., 
nitrate of silver 0.5 to 1 per cent.) are indicated. In horses 
these remedies may be injected through a small catheter 
inserted in the nose. Internally heroin in the form of 



30 DISEASES OF THE LARYNX 

glycoheroin (1- to 2-oz. doses three times daily) is of service. 
Very popular is "Equine Cough Syrup" (Parke, Davis & Co.). 
The following prescription is effectual in horse practice: 

1$ — Heroini hydrochloridi gr. viij 

Potassii acetatis 3hj 

Tinct. aconiti 3iv 

Spiritus setheris nitrosi 5iv 

Syrupi q. s. Oj 

M. Sig. — An ounce every two hours for cough and fever in horse. 

For expectorant powders which may be used see Bronchitis. 

Chronic laryngitis in large animals may be treated by 
intralaryngeal injections through the cricotracheal liga- 
ment, using a special curved hollow needle. Usually 1 oz. 
of the following solutions is used: 0.5 per cent, acetate of 
lead, 0.1 per cent, nitrate of silver, 0.5 per cent. alum. The 
bowels should be kept open by administering Carlsbad 
salts. 

Obviously in secondary laryngitis accompanying con- 
tagious diseases the separation of the sick from the healthy, 
and a thorough disinfection of the premises should be 
enforced. 

Croupous Laryngitis (Membranous Laryngitis). — Defini- 
tion. — A form of laryngitis characterized by the development 
of a fibrinous pseudomembrane on the laryngeal mucosa. 
Usually the pharynx and trachea are also involved. 

Occurrence. — This is a rather rare disease occurring 
primarily in sheep and cattle and more rarely in horses and 
swine. 

Etiology. — Croupous laryngitis may be either primary or 
secondary. Primary cases result from the inhalation of 
irritant gases, smoke, heated air, etc. Occasionally following 
a stable fire or the use of strong irritant disinfectants cases 
occur. Sheep driven through deep dust to increase the 
weight of the wool are sometimes attacked. The exciting 
cause, however, is evidently infection with probably the 
necrosis bacillus or streptococci. 

Secondarily, croupous laryngitis is a symptom of malig- 
nant head catarrh, necrotic stomatitis of calves, purpura, 
glanders (acute), rinderpest, etc. 



LARYNGITIS 31 

Symptoms.— The disease begins as an acute catarrh of the 
larynx that develops rapidly producing severe dyspnea 
which reaches a high degree in one or two days. The tem- 
perature is high, chills occur, and the patient is prostrated. 
There is loss of appetite. A prominent clinical symptom 
is dyspnea associated with loud laryngeal tones, swelling, 
and sensitiveness in the region of the throat. Slight press- 
ure produces spasmodic cough which may lead to apnea. 
During the act of coughing the patient ejects at first quan- 
tities of mucus and pus through the nostril. Later croupous 
masses may be coughed up which usually temporarily or 
permanently improves the condition. The lymph glands 
of the submaxillary region are swollen and tender. In some 
instances the feces are covered with flakes of mucus or fibrin. 

Course. — Very acute. In fatal cases death usually results 
in three days from asphyxia, or the patient may die in ten 
days. 

The prognosis is fair. About 50 per cent, of the cases 
recover. 

Diagnosis. — The high fever, peculiar hoarse cough, stenotic 
(roaring) inspiratory tone and the coughing up of fibrinous 
masses are the most important diagnostic points. One 
should be on the lookout for foreign bodies, edema of the 
glottis, and tumors in or near the larynx from the stand- 
point of differential diagnosis. 

Treatment. — The inhalation of alkalies such as lime water 
repeated every two hours and infrictions over the throat are 
recommended. The principal indication, however, is an 
early tracheotomy. Alcohol per rectum may also be used. 

Edematous Laryngitis (Edema of the Glottis). — Definition. — 
By edema of the glottis we understand a serous infiltration 
of the submucous connective tissue of the upper part of 
the larynx (ventral surface of the epiglottis, epiglottic-ary- 
tenoid folds and the walls of the saccules of the larynx). 
The edematous swelling produces marked stenosis of the 
larynx with resulting severe dyspnea. According to cause 
we may distinguish: 

(a) An inflammatory edema. 

(b) A non-inflammatory edema. 



32 DISEASES OF THE LARYNX 

The inflammatory edema may be primary due to the 
causes of inflammation, or secondary and associated with 
purpura, glanders, pyemia or pneumonia. 

The non-inflammatory edema is the result of the venous 
congestion of the larynx due to chronic heart diseases, 
traumatic pericarditis of the ox, and compressions of the 
jugulars in horses from ill-fitting collars. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms in both of these conditions 
are much the same except that the non-inflammatory form 
usually develops more slowly. Clinically, edema of the 
glottis is manifested by a severe inspiratory dyspnea of sud- 
den development. The patient shows marked "air hunger" 
by standing with head held extended, anxious expression, 
general outbreak of sweat, forefeet apart, and rarely saliva 
and food dropping from the nose and mouth. The dyspnea 
is attended by a loud roaring sound occurring at each inspira- 
tion. The mucous membranes become bluish and the pulse 
and respiration increased. Sometimes paroxysms of cough 
are present. Unless relieved the patient may die in a few 
hours. Some cases recover spontaneously, however. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is not favorable unless treat- 
ment is administered early. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in performing trache- 
otomy, and in cases due to heart diseases, etc., blood-letting 
may be practised. In milder cases Lloyd's lobelia (20 c.c. 
subcutaneously) has given good results. 

PARALYSIS OF THE RECURRENT NERVE. 

Roaring. 

Definition. — Roaring may be defined as an unsoundness 
characterized by dyspnea (always inspiratory), and cough 
due to paralysis of the left recurrent nerve. The condi- 
tion is always chronic and can be relieved in about 80 per 
cent, of the cases by operation. 

Etiology. — From a practical standpoint recurrent paralysis 
may be classified as primary or secondary. 

The causes of the primary paralysis are not understood. 
It seems as if heredity played a part in that stallions and 



PARALYSIS OF THE RECURRENT NERVE 33 

mares which are roarers transmit the tendency to their 
progeny. The condition usually does not develop until 
about the fourth to sixth year. As a rule only the left 
side is affected, although exceptions are noted. 

Secondarily, recurrent paralysis may be a sequela to 
influenza, strangles, and dourine, or it may follow an attack 
of forage poisoning or poisoning with lead or, more rarely, 
goitre or direct injury to the nerve itself. 

Symptoms. — Usually in primary cases the disease comes 
on gradually. It is at first but slightly developed, the 
patient only emitting a noisy sound when exercising. As a 
rule, if the horse be at rest no signs of the disorder are 
noticed. If the upper rings of the trachea be pinched a 
prolonged hoarse throat cough is heard. In many instances, 
however, cough is absent. It is sometimes possible to 
cause the patient to emit a peculiar grunt if it is struck a 
sudden, unexpected blow with the hand on the side of the 
chest. The principal symptom of roaring, however, is the 
audible laryngeal sound emitted during and increased by 
exercise. The quality of the sound suffers many modifica- 
tions from a whistle to a pronounced roar, which in some 
animals can be heard a distance of several yards. Pressing 
the left or right arytenoid cartilage with the index finger 
increases the sound. In well-developed cases sufficient 
exercise can produce apnea. By compressing the nostrils 
to one-half their normal dilatation the sound is temporarily 
diminished. Generally the roaring sound ceases after five 
to ten minutes' rest but returns again during exercise. In 
mild cases it stops as soon as the animal is "pulled up" 
after a hard gallop. In bad cases the dyspnea is both ex- 
and inspiratory. 

Diagnosis. — The examination of the patient should be 
made under motion. The horse may be ridden, galloped on 
a lunging line or led behind a buggy. In some mild cases 
the animal may suppress the sound by extending the head. 
To avoid this the head should be drawn in, the neck held 
well arched. The use of the laryngoscope which shows the 
asymmetry of action of the arytenoids is of great value in 
diagnosis. 
3 



34 DISEASES OF THE LARYNX 

Course. — The course of primary roaring is chronic. Due to 
the increasing atrophy of the crico-arytenoid muscles on the 
left side the condition grows worse with time. Many roaring 
horses may be used for light, slow work while others are 
practically worthless for service. This depends largely upon 
how deep into the lumen the arytenoid cartilage sinks and 
whether or not the hypertrophic fellow muscles of the 
opposite side can act as compensators for the diseased ones 
of the left. 

Some cases of secondary roaring (forage poisoning, 
strangles) recover spontaneously in four to six months. 

Prognosis. — About 80 per cent, can be either relieved or 
cured by surgical interference. 

Treatment. — The most successful treatment consists in 
the removal of the laryngeal saccule of the affected side. 

TUMORS IN THE LARYNX. 

Occurrence. — In domestic animals tumors in the larynx 
are not common. Occasionally we run across them in 
horses and cattle. The commonest ones are cysts which 
develop on the anterior surface of the epiglottis or exception- 
ally below the cricoid cartilage. They attain the size of a 
hen's egg and are filled with a slimy fluid. Fibromas, 
lipomas, melanomas, and carcinomas are rare. Chondromas 
sometimes occur in horses involving the arytenoid and 
cricoid cartilages and produce symptoms of roaring. Poly- 
poid tumors occur associated with chronic laryngitis. In 
cattle tubercular and actinomycotic growths are not 
uncommon. 

Symptoms. — Tumors of the larynx produce dyspnea and 
dysphagia. The dyspnea resembles that noted in roaring. 
It is, however, not infrequently intermittent and occasionally 
tends to decrease rather than increase on exercise. There 
is sometimes blood-streaked nasal discharge. A diagnosis 
can usually be arrived at by palpation through the mouth, 
the use of the laryngoscope or an exploratory opening of 
the larynx. The treatment is surgical and consists in the 
extirpation of the tumor. (See Surgery.) 



CHAPTER III. 
DISEASES OF THE BRONCHI. 

CATARRHAL BRONCHITIS. 

Definition. — By the term bronchitis an inflammation of the 
larger bronchi is understood (macrobronchitis) . Bronchio- 
litis (microbronchitis) is used to express an inflammation of 
the capillary bronchi (bronchitis capillaris). 

Occurrence. — Bronchitis occurs either as a primary or 
secondary disease. It is very common among all domesti- 
cated animals particularly during the spring and fall when 
it may become enzootic among horses and cattle. It may 
occur alone but is usually associated with tracheitis and 
laryngitis (catarrh of the air passages), or on the other hand, 
may attend pneumonia (bronchopneumonia). 

Forms. — Several different forms of catarrhal bronchitis 
are recognized. When the exudate is fluid and abundant, 
moist bronchitis or blenorrhea of the bronchi is spoken 
of. If the exudate is rather limited and not so fluid a dry 
bronchitis exists. A fetid bronchitis develops from a 
bacterial decomposition of the exudate. From the stand- 
point of course catarrhal bronchitis may be either acute 
or chronic, and from the causes a verminous and a mycotic 
bronchitis may be distinguished. 

Etiology. — The causes are usually refrigeration (changeable 
weather), inhalation of mechanical and chemical irritants 
(dust, smoke, chemical fumes), aspiration of fluids such as 
liquid medicines unskilfully administered, blood, pus or 
solid matter such as food which gains access to the windpipe 
especially when the pharynx is paralyzed. Certain animal 
parasites (strongylus) and bacteria are also causes. 

Secondary bronchitis occurs with most of the infectious 
diseases affecting the respiratory tract (influenza, strangles, 
tuberculosis, hog cholera). 



36 DISEASES OF THE BRONCHI 

Symptoms. — The characteristic symptoms of acute catar- 
rhal bronchitis are cough, which is at first short, dry and 
and painful, but later with the accumulation of liquid 
exudate becomes looser and less painful. Nasal discharge 
is present and during the act of coughing bronchial slime 
is ejected through the mouth and nose. In the early stages 
especially the respirations are increased. Percussion is 
normal and on auscultation rales are heard. Rales may be 
absent in the early stages but will appear generally about 
the second or third day. The character of the rale will 
depend upon the size of the bronchus involved and the 
consistency of the exudate. In the larger bronchi, provided 
the exudate is rather thin fluid, the rale is of the character 
of bursting large bubbles, while in the smaller bronchi the 
rales are much finer and of a crepitant character. If the 
bronchial mucosa is much swollen, narrowing the lumen of 
the bronchi, whistling, piping or hissing tones may be heard. 
As a rule the animal shows fever in the early stages (104° to 
106° F.), but usually within two or three days the tempera- 
ture drops. With the continuance of the fever the pulse 
frequency increases. 

Chronic Catarrhal Bronchitis. — Chronic catarrhal bron- 
chitis usually develops from the acute form. It may occur, 
however, as a symptom of chronic heart and lung disease. 
It is very frequently associated with chronic pulmonary 
emphysema or seen to accompany such chronic infectious 
diseases as tuberculosis, glanders, or verminous pneumonia. 
Generally speaking, chronic bronchitis leads to irreparable 
injury not only of the walls of the bronchi but of the neigh- 
boring lung tissue (parabronchitis, bronchiectasis, atelectasis, 
emphysema). The symptoms of chronic bronchitis are 
much the same as those of the acute except that the condi- 
tion is feverless and suffers many exacerbations and remis- 
sions. The general condition of the patient may not be 
much disturbed, and the only evidences of the disorder are 
chronic cough, dyspnea, and nasal discharge which is often 
foamy and white in appearance. Obviously if chronic 
bronchitis is a symptom of an infectious disease like tuber- 
culosis or glanders, the symptoms which typify these con- 



CATARRHAL BRONCHITIS 37 

ditions will be associated with those of bronchitis. In 
practice chronic bronchitis is most commonly met with in 
horses suffering from "heaves" (pulmonary emphysema). 
It also occurs frequently in dairy cows in the eastern States. 

Course. — The acute form usually terminates in two to three 
weeks in healing. When the smaller bronchi become 
involved (bronchiolitis) the course is more prolonged and is 
apt to lead to bronchopneumonia and death. Death may 
also result from pulmonary edema. 

Chronic bronchitis may last for months or years, depend- 
ing upon the cause. Generally in time the patient becomes 
anemic, cachectic, and finally death results from inanition. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of bronchial catarrh is, as a rule, 
not difficult. The presence of the characteristic rales or 
rhonchi are evidence enough, especially when taken into 
consideration with the other symptoms and course of the 
disease. It is sometimes impossible to determine whether 
the bronchitis is primary or secondary. Generally, however, 
when bronchitis is secondary to some acute infectious disease 
the high temperature which the patient shows is indicative. 
When associated with a chronic infection a thorough clinical 
examination of the patient will usually reveal the presence 
of a primary disease (tuberculosis, tuberculin test; glanders, 
various tests). 

Prognosis. — A primary catarrh of the larger bronchi is 
usually more benign than that of the bronchioli. In very 
young or very old animals on account of the prevalence of 
bronchiolitis the prognosis is not as good as in animals in 
the prime of life. Bronchitis, the result of inhalation of 
smoke or fire, is usually diffuse and dangerous. If pneu- 
monia develops, which is not common, obviously the prog- 
nosis is not so good. 

Bronchites which are secondary are governed from a 
prognostic standpoint by the course of the primary disease. 

Treatment. — The patient should be kept in a light, clean, 
well-ventilated place and every attention given the hygiene 
of the skin. The horse should be covered with a light 
blanket and the legs, if cold, rubbed and wrapped in soft 
bandages. If the dyspnea is marked an oil of mustard 



38 DISEASES OF THE BRONCHI 

infriction (1 to 12) should be applied to the chest. The food 
should be laxative (bran, oats, grass, carrots). The bowels 
should be kept open by using Carlsbad salts. If the cough 
is dry and painful, inhalants (camphor, turpentine, or 
creolin) may be administered. Of value in dry bronchitis 
is temperate, moist air which may be created with a spray 
or placing water in buckets in the stable. Tartar emetic 
combined with heroin is of some use as an expectorant 
and to allay distressing cough. The following prescription 
is suggested. 

1$ — Heroini gr. viij 

F. E. hyoscyami or belladonnae 5J 

Ant. et potassi tart 5iv 

Syrupi q. s. Oj 

Sig. — One ounce every two hours. 

If the cough is troublesome treat as indicated in laryngitis. 
Intratracheal injections are of little value, as the fluid does 
not reach beyond the larger bronchi. If the accumulation 
of liquid exudate is excessive a hypodermic of atropin (gr. J) 
will temporarily arrest the discharge and dyspnea. 

Chronic bronchitis is usually incurable. Expectorants, 
diuretics and sedatives often used combined may tempo- 
rarily alleviate the symptoms. (For details see Heaves.) 



VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS. 

Lung-worm Plague. 

Definition. — A form of bronchitis due to the presence of 
palisade worms in the air tubes. There is usually associated 
with it bronchopneumonia. 

Occurrence. — The disease is very common in all countries 
and assumes the form of an enzootic, causing great losses 
among sheep, cattle and more rarely swine. Horses and 
asses are rarely affected. The lung- worm plague is most 
apt to follow after wet summers and among animals kept 
in swampy pastures or lands subject to overflow. Outbreaks 
have occurred, however, among stabled sheep. 



VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS 39 

Etiology. — From a clinical standpoint the following varie- 
ties of the nematode worm are important. 

1. Strongylus filar ia of sheep. 

2. Strongylus micrurus of cattle. 

3. Strongylus paradoxus of swine. 

The life history is not entirely known. These parasites 
which are long, slender, filiform worms, in the adult stage 
inhabit the bronchi and trachea. Their eggs and embryos 
are eliminated from the body by coughing and with the feces. 
Outside of the body they probably undergo changes. Sheep, 
cattle and swine take them up with food and water of infested 
pastures, feed boxes, stable floors, etc. The parasites pass 
first to the stomach; probably during rumination they reach 
the pharynx, trachea, and bronchi. It is also probable that 
the embryos are carried to the lungs by the blood, as nodules 
containing them are not infrequently found in the lungs. 
In about two months after ingestion the strongylus becomes 
sexually ripe. The worm brood is usually taken into the 
body during the spring and the clinical symptoms of the 
disorder produced develop two to three months later. 
Infestation, however, is possible during the summer or fall. 
Young animals (lambs and calves) are more susceptible than 
adults. Suckling lambs and calves may be infected from 
the udders of their dams. 

Necropsy. — On necropsy the lungs of affected sheep show 
chronic bronchitis with bronchiectasia and usually catarrhal 
pneumonia and nodular parabronchitis. The cadaver in 
the later stages of the disease is anemic and hydremic, 
transudates occurring in the body cavities and the connective 
tissue. There is obviously evidence of bronchitis, the 
bronchial tubes being partially filled with mucopurulent 
exudate. Numbers of sexually mature worms are present 
and under the microscope ova and embryos can be seen. 

Symptoms. — In practice outbreaks affecting herds of 
lambs and calves usually occur in the summer and fall. The 
early symptoms are those of a chronic bronchial catarrh, 
the patient coughing, showing nasal discharge and on auscul- 
tation rales are heard. Later the affected animals become 
emaciated, anemic, hydremic (cold edemas under the throat 



40 DISEASES OF THE BRONCHI 

and brisket), dyspneic and cachectic. The symptoms in 
calves are much the same as those in lambs. 

Diagnosis. — A positive diagnosis can be made only on 
necropsy or by microscopic examination of the feces or 
bronchial exudate coughed up by the patients. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis depends upon the severity of 
the symptoms and the age and condition of the patient. 
The disease is much more serious in lambs and calves than 
in pigs. Adult animals frequently recover spontaneously. 
In lambs the mortality will vary from 10 to 70 per cent, 
in different outbreaks; in calves the prognosis is more favor- 
able. 

Treatment. — The most effective treatment consists in 
intratracheal injections of antiparasitic drugs. The use of 
a spray or the inhalation of sulphur fumes, smoke from 
burning feathers, etc., affords usually only temporary relief. 
The following mixtures may be used intratracheally : 

1$ — 01. terebinthinse, 

01. olivse aa §iij 

Creolini 3iiss 

M. Sig.— Inject into the trachea 5 c.c. for lambs, 20 c.c. for calves; repeat 
twice at four-day intervals. 

1^ — Creosoti 3v 

01. olivae giij 

M. Sig. — Intratracheal injection 5 c.c. for lambs, 15 to 20 c.c. for calves; 
repeat in four days. 

Potassium picronitricum 1 per mille has given good results 
(20 to 60 c.c. according to age). 

Prophylaxis. — The sheep and lambs should be removed 
from infested pastures and fed highly nutritious food. 
Water should be supplied from a well and dry pavement 
kept about the drinking troughs. The sheep pens, lots, 
mangers, floor, etc., should be thoroughly disinfected. If the 
floor is of earth it should be removed to the depth of six 
inches and filled in with fresh uninfested clay or cemented. 
Infested fields should be thoroughly tile-drained and culti- 
vated. Many sheep owners recommend that tobacco 
leaves mixed with salt be made accessible to the sheep at all 
times. Sulphate of iron and salt may be fed once weekly 
with the grain. 



CHAPTER IV. 
DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 

CIRCULATORY DISTURBANCES IN THE LUNGS. 

Congestion of the Lungs. — Definition. — An engorgement of 
the pulmonary capillaries with blood. It may be active or 
passive. 

Etiology. — Active congestion is due to increased heart 
action which may be brought about by overexertion in 
unconditioned horses (racing, hard pulling) especially during 
hot weather. Heat stroke may induce it. The inhalation 
of irritant gases (stable fires) is a cause. The first stage of 
pneumonia is congestion of the lungs. 

Passive congestion: Two forms may be recognized, 
mechanical and hypostatic. 

Mechanical congestion occurs whenever there is some 
condition of the heart present which prevents the free return 
of blood to it (left valvular stenosis; mitral insufficiency). 
It may arise from any heart's weakness (cloudy swelling, 
dilatation) , and occur during the course of an acute infectious 
disease which affects the heart. Passive congestion may 
follow filling of the pericardium (pericarditis) and be second- 
ary to gastric or intestinal bloat. 

Hypostatic congestion occurs in large animals when the 
patient lies in one posture for a long time, the blood gravitat- 
ing to the lower lung. Probably the attending heart's 
weakness assists. 

PULMONARY EDEMA. 

Definition. — A transuding of serum into the alveoli and 
bronchioli. It is the next step in congestion, which it 
accompanies; it also occurs in pneumonia. 



42 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 

Etiology. — Edema usually follows congestion, the advanced 
stages of which it represents (serous pneumonia) . The causes 
are, therefore, those of congestion and pneumonia, i. e. t 
inhalation of irritant gases, acute infectious diseases (malig- 
nant edema, anthrax); may attend severe acute nephritis; 
any heart weakness; bronchial parasites (Str. paradoxus in 
swine). 

Symptoms. — As pulmonary congestion and edema are 
always more or less combined, their symptoms may be 
treated together. They are: Dyspnea which develops 
rapidly. Sometimes the patient becomes apneic. The 
respirations may reach 80 to 100. If the edema is well 
developed, there is a foamy, blood-tinged nasal discharge. 
The mucous membranes may be cyanotic. The heart 
beat is often palpitating, the pulse, at first full and rapid, 
later becomes weak. Percussion is normal. Auscultation: 
exaggerated vesicular breathing, crepitant rales, moist 
rales. 

Course. — May be very rapid, especially if it follow active 
congestion. In six to twelve hours the symptoms may 
abate or lead to death. Following passive congestion, the 
course may be four to six days with lethal termination. 
Apoplectic death may also occur. Rarely pneumonia 
develops. 

Diagnosis. — The dyspnea, sudden onset and usually rapid 
course are characteristic. From acute bronchitis it is 
distinguished by the absence of fever and distressing cough 
and the presence of crepitant rales and foamy nasal dis- 
charge. Heat stroke resembles it but the high temperature 
(may reach 112° F.) and nervous prostration of this condition 
are sufficient for differentiation. 

Prognosis. — Usually good in robust patients. A weak 
pulse and fever are bad signs. Pulmonary congestion and 
edema are often fatal. 

Treatment. — Bleeding is indicated when the dyspnea is 
very great. In large animals remove 4 to 6 quarts of blood 
from the jugular. Its affect is often life-saving. The 
application of oil of mustard to the chest is helpful. While 
the heart is weak give excitants (alcohol, ether, caffein). 



PULMONARY EDEMA 43 

Sulphate of atropin (gr. f to f subcutaneously) is good in 
cases where edema predominates (foamy nasal discharge). 
Digitalis and strychnin are also recommended. In milder 
cases an aloes ball affords relief. Nitroglycerin (gr. \ to j) 
is sometimes used. 

Bronchopulmonary Hemorrhage (Bronchorrhagia, Pneu- 
morrhagia, Bleeding from the Lungs, Hemoptysis). — Definition. 
— Bleeding from the lower air passages and lung tissue. 

Etiology. — Bleeding from the bronchial mucous mem- 
brane may be due to overexertion, as fast driving, racing. 
It is seen in valvular heart disease, congestion of the lungs, 
aneurysms (aorta, pulmonary artery), lung infarctions, 
thrombosis, embolism. In infectious diseases it is at times 
a symptom (fibrinous pneumonia, purpura hemorrhagica, 
anthrax, glanders, tuberculosis) . Where caverns of the lung 
remain after pneumonia, hemorrhage occurs. Frequently 
no cause can be found on postmortem to explain the hemor- 
rhage. 

Symptoms. — Bleeding from the nose is the principal 
symptom. If the blood comes from the larger bronchi, it 
will flow from the nostrils in drops or in a thin stream and 
is usually not frothy. From the finer bronchi and lung the 
blood is frothy and of light red color. The patient is dyspneic 
and coughs. On auscultation rales are heard. Percussion 
normal. 

Treatment. — The patient should be kept as quiet as 
possible. Ice packs (or cold water) may be applied to sides, 
vulva or scrotum (reflex affect). Internal medication does 
little good, Ergot in the form of fluidextract is recom- 
mended by most practitioners; others condemn it. Acetate 
of lead (5j) given three times daily is employed in obstinate 
cases. Sulphuric acid (dilute 3vj) is sometimes beneficial. 
Theoretically aconite (Fleming's tincture Tfl.x) is good as it 
lowers blood-pressure. Lung hemorrhages which are due 
merely to congestion of the bronchial mucous membrane 
or lung usually stop spontaneously when the blood-pressure 
becomes low. On the other hand, those hemorrhages due to 
a ruptured vessel in the lung (aneurysm) are generally 
copious enough to produce death. 



44 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 



PULMONARY GANGRENE. 



Definition. — A decomposition of the dead lung tissue due 
to the microorganisms of putrefaction. 

Occurrence. — Most often in horse, swine, and sheep. 

Etiology. — May result from fibrinous pneumonia, diseases 
of the pharynx which make swallowing difficult (pharyngitis, 
paralysis), general diseases affecting the pharynx (tetanus, 
parturient paresis, forage poisoning) causing the food 
swallowed to "go the wrong way;" the aspiration of foreign 
matter (dust, sawdust, blood, pus, grains, hair, plant 
fibers, etc.), drenches unskilfully administered (pneumonia 
medicantaria) especially in horses, sheep, and swine; by 
metastasis, emboli develop from ulcerative processes in the 
bowel, hoof matrix (gangrenous pododermatitis) , and bone 
(caries). In these instances the necrosis bacillus is active. 
Traumatic injuries rarely cause pulmonary gangrene. 

Symptoms. — The most characteristic symptom is fetid 
expirium. 1 There is nasal discharge of a muddy reddish- 
brown or greenish color. The discharge, which is more 
copious after coughing, has a fetid odor. It contains bits of 
dead lung tissue, fat crystals, pigment, and innumerable 
microorganisms. Under the microscope elastic fibers are 
seen. The respirations are dyspneic especially in the 
latter stages (toxemia). Fever is nearly always present. 
It is usually about 104° to 105° F., and assumes an inter- 
mittent type. In gangrene due to aspirated foreign matter, 
the temperature may not be over 102° F. for several days. 
The pulse is frequent, arhythmic, and thready. Chills are 
frequent. The patient loses flesh rapidly, is weak, languid, 
and stupid. The appetite is capricious; toward the end 
there is diarrhea. Pregnant animals often abort. On 
percussion the sound is flat over tjie ventral and middle 
portions of the lung. Sometimes over caverns the " cracked- 
pot" tone is emitted. On auscultation rales and tubular 
breathing are most often noted. 

1 If the gangrenous mass does not communicate with a bronchus the 
expirium may not be fetid. Diagnosis in these cases is very difficult or 
impossible. 



ABSCESS OF THE LUNG 45 

Diagnosis. — The finding of elastic fibers in the nasal dis- 
charge is pathognomonic. The fetid breath and nasal 
discharge are indicative. In putrid bronchitis there are 
usually no general symptoms such as fever and the condition 
of the patient is, as a rule, good. 

Prognosis. — Bad. Only when local foci are present is 
encapsulement or the ejection of the dead mass by coughing 
probable. 

Treatment. — Unsatisfactory. The inhalation or intra- 
tracheal administration of antiseptics may be tried. Pneu- 
motomy is employed in man. Give good food and care and 
treat the heart, bowel (diarrhea) and fever as the indications 
warrant. 

ABSCESS OF THE LUNG. 

Definition. — Collection of pus in cavities in the lung. 

Etiology. — Embolic, metastatic abscesses following general 
pyemic diseases (strangles, purulent metritis, bacillosis of 
sucklings), or secondary to primary abscess (abscess within 
hoof, abscess following castration). It is rarely due to 
fibrinous pneumonia, but may follow catarrhal pneumonia 
due to foreign matter entering the bronchi, especially 
medicines. 

Symptoms. — Abscess following pneumonia is recognized by 
the continued fever and purulent nasal discharge. The 
symptoms are usually acute (like an acute pneumonia) and 
much resemble those of pulmonary gangrene. 

Diagnosis. — A copious nasal discharge which is largely 
made up of pus is the chief clinical feature which distinguishes 
it from pulmonary gangrene. 

Course. — Usually death in seven to ten days. Isolated 
abscesses may become encapsulated or break into a bronchus 
and be discharged. Diagnosis in these instances is difficult. 

Treatment. — Usually of little avail. In man well defined, 
superficial abscesses are surgically treated by opening and 
draining. The use of antiseptics as inhalations (bichlorid, 
1 per mille, as a spray) or intratracheal injections are sug- 
gested. 



46 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 



CHRONIC ALVEOLAR EMPHYSEMA. 

Definition. — Chronic alveolar emphysema is a permanent 
overdistention of the alveoli with an increased amount of 
air present in the lung. The walls of the alveoli become 
anemic and atrophic. 

Occurrence. — Most common in horses, especially old, 
hard-worked individuals. It is a common cause of so-called 
"heaves." 

Etiology. — (a) Continued severe exercise (hard pulling, 
fast driving, high jumping). This causes repeated physio- 
logical dyspnea inducing overdistention at inspiration and 
causes the expiration to become forced. These two factors 
in time lead to weakening and finally atrophy of the alveolar 
walls. The alveoli can be ten times their normal diameter, 
the walls very thin and anemic. Later rupture of the 
interalveolar septa occurs, permitting direct communication 
between the distended air cells. The lung thus loses its 
power of contraction at expiration, which causes this act to 
become forced so that the air from the emphysematous 
part of the lung is expelled, (b) Severe dyspnea due to 
diseases of the larynx or bronchi is a rare cause, (c) Severe 
coughing, especially in chronic bronchitis, (d) Occasionally 
chronic alveolar emphysema results from the acute form. 
(e) The feeding of bulky forage, particularly clover or 
dusty timothy hay is no doubt an important predisposing 
cause of pulmonary emphysema, the dilatation of the 
stomach and bowels which such foods produce interfering 
with respiration, (f) As some strains of horses seem more 
subject to emphysema than others, an inherited predisposi- 
tion (lacking resistance in the septa) has been assumed. 
Of this, however, there is no substantial proof. Use and 
feeding methods may explain the assumption. 

Symptoms. — Dyspnea which increases on exercise. It is 
always most pronounced at expiration and is often 
accompanied by a double movement of the flanks and 
the interrupted protrusion of the anus. The first part 
of the expiratory act is passive, but after a very brief 
pause the movement becomes active, the abdominal muscles 



CHRONIC ALVEOLAR EMPHYSEMA 47 

contracting with vigor in an effort to compensate for the 
lost elasticity of the lung and to expel the air. A marked 
groove appears along the costal arches ("heave line"). 
The inspiratory act is shorter than the expiratory. The 
ribs are seen to roll forward beneath the skin, the intercostal 
spaces deepen and the ventral portion of the thorax and the 
anterior aperture of the chest sink inwardly. In advanced 
cases the ribs are kept rolled forward, the thorax appearing 
barrel- shaped. If bronchitis is present, there is cough which 
is usually short, weak, and dull. The cough is often attended 
by the discharge of flatus through the anus ("breaking 
wind"). The heart sounds are at times feebler than normal. 
The diastolic sound may be accentuated. Percussion gives 
a sound which is too full and drum-like (hyperresonance) . 
The heart's dulness may be obliterated. Posteriorly, the 
area of the field of percussion is enlarged, the posteroventral 
limits extending through the 18th, 17th and 14th ribs at the 
heights on the thorax of the external angle of the ilium, 
tuberosities of the ischium and shoulder- joint respectively. 
(With normal lungs the figures would read 17, 15, and 11.) 
Auscultation: If the bronchitis is present, dry or moist 
rales are heard, otherwise the vesicular murmur is weakened. 
When the bronchi are involved there is a bilateral, white 
nasal discharge. The general condition suffers in old cases. 
The patient loses flesh, becomes anemic with a tendency 
for edema to form under the chest and belly and in the 
limbs. 

Course. — The course is prolonged, the condition lasting 
for months and years. Once affected the patient never 
fully recovers. The symptoms improve as the attending 
bronchitis improves, the patient's work lightened and the 
quantity of roughage fed, especially tame hay, reduced. 
On the other hand exposure, hard work and the feeding 
of bulky, dusty food (hay), and allowing the thirsty patient 
to drink at. one time all the water it will, greatly increases 
the dyspnea and cough. 

Diagnosis. — Only advanced cases can be diagnosed. The 
characteristic dyspnea, which increases on exercise, the 
dilated nostrils, the anal protrusion, cough, and absence 



48 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 

of fever are characteristic. Its chronicity (absence of fever) 
and physical signs (auscultation and percussion) differentiate 
emphysema from acute febrile diseases of -the respiratory 
system (pleuritis). 

Prognosis. — As far as the life of the patient is concerned 
the prognosis is good, but from the standpoint of healing 
there is no hope of a permanent cure. Diffuse bronchial 
catarrh and weak heart are bad complications. 

Treatment. — No treatment, hygienic, dietetic or medicinal 
will cure chronic pulmonary emphysema. By using the 
patient only for light work, feeding good nutritious food 
(clean oats, bran), allowing only small quantities of dustless 
(moistened) hay, and watering frequently but in small 
quantities at a time, the symptoms may be overcome so 
long as the above dietetics are persisted in. 

Drugs. — There are several drugs such as belladonna, 
datura stramonium, hyoscyamus, which contain atropin, 
that will mask the symptoms (dyspnea) in a marked degree. 
By using such drugs horse-traders often deceive prospective 
buyers into believing the horse to have a good wind." How- 
ever, the abatement of the symptoms is only temporary, 
lasting usually but one day. The abnormal dilatation of 
the pupil, dryness of the mucous membranes and rapid pulse, 
which usually follow the use of a "dope," should put the 
veterinarian on his guard. 

Arsenic is useful, usually given in the form of Fowler's 
solution (5ss) three times daily in the drinking water. 
Subcutaneous injections of atropin temporarily allay the 
symptom. Treating the attending bronchial catarrh is 
helpful (see this). In "heavy" horses avoid using arecalin, 
eserin, or barium chlorid. 



ACUTE INTERSTITIAL PULMONARY EMPHYSEMA. 

Definition. — Rupture of the alveoli with the entrance of 
air into the interstitial tissue of the lung, bubbles appearing 
beneath the pleura. 

Occurrence. — Has been noted in horse and ox. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS 49 

Etiology. — Anything which greatly increases air pressure 
in the alveoli. Violent coughing fits to dislodge foreign 
bodies, medicine, etc., which have gotten into the bronchi. 
It rarely accompanies acute catarrhal and croupous bron- 
chitis. Violent contractions of the abdominal muscles 
(hard pulling, retching, continued bellowing in cattle). 
Violent struggles to get free from hobbles, or if a horse is 
cast in the stall and makes vigorous efforts to free itself. 

Symptoms. — Sudden dyspnea which may rapidly lead to 
suffocation. Emphysema of the skin (in ox) of the aperture 
of the chest, shoulders, and side of thorax. It may involve 
the whole trunk. Percussion is practically normal. On 
auscultation crackling sounds, rales. 

Course. — Usually fatal in twenty-four to thirty-six hours. 
Healing only in less acute cases. 

Diagnosis. — Unless subcutaneous emphysema develop, 
may be impossible. Can easily be confused with pulmonary 
congestion and edema. The history is helpful. 

Treatment. — Allay cough. Scarify skin. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

Pneumonia. Pneumonitis. 

The following clinical forms of pneumonia may be distin- 
guished : 

Fibrinous. 
Catarrhal. 
Foreign body. 
Metastatic. 
Interstitial. 
Fibrinous Pneumonia (Lung Fever, Croupous Pneumonia). 
— Definition. — An inflammation of the lung characterized 
by its typical course, and the formation of fibrinous coagulse 
in the alveoli of the invaded area. It affects the lobe rather 
than the lobule. 

Etiology. — The existence of fibrinous pneumonia as a 
primary disease in animals is open to question. At any 
rate it has not been proven. 
4 



50 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 

In the horse it is usually expressive of infectious fibrinous 
pneumonia although it may accompany strangles or purpura 
hemorrhagica. 

In the ox it most commonly is noted as a symptom of 
hemorrhagic septicemia due to the Bacterium bovisepticum. 1 
It also occurs from foreign bodies entering the lung from the 
reticulum, the aspiration of ingesta in choking or when the 
pharynx is paralyzed. 

In swine it is a symptom of hog cholera (lung form), 
hemorrhagic septicemia and anthrax. A mixed fibrinous 
and catarrhal pneumonia may occur in swine due to the 
aspiration of medicine unskilfully given as a drench (melted 
lard). 

In sheep fibrinous pneumonia is seen in hemorrhagic 
septicemia (Bacterium ovisepticum). 

Cold, the inhalation of irritant gases, smoke, steam, etc., 
great exhaustion from overwork, casting, tying the head of 
the horse too high, etc., are merely predisposing factors 
in the etiology of fibrinous pneumonia. 

Symptoms. — The onset of the disease is usually sudden. 
Without warning the patient is seized with fever, which in a 
few hours, in the horse, may reach 104° to 106° F. The 
patient is stupid, languid, and loses appetite. In some 
cases a pronounced chill ushers in the disease symptoms. 
The fever is of the continuous type remaining up for seven 
to nine days when it drops rapidly to normal (by crisis), 
or on the third or fourth day may begin to gradually decline, 
reaching normal in four to eight days following (by lysis). 
Cough is short, painful, and frequently restrained. At 
first it is dry, later moist in character. Xasal discharge 
is not always present, especially in continuously stabled 
horses. In some cases, during the stage of red hepatization, 
a rusty brown ("prune juice") discharge occurs which may 
last only twenty-four to forty-eight hours. In the stage of 
resolution a yellow-colored discharge may appear. The 
pulse at first is not much affected, but as the disease pro- 
gresses, due to cloudy swelling of the heart, its frequency 

1 In these cases the pneumonia is a mixture of catarrhal and fibrinous and 
the course of the disorder is atypical. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS 51 

is increased to 60 to 80 or higher. Quite often the pulse 
remains high after the fever has gone down. The respira- 
tions are accelerated early and the patient breathes with 
distended nostrils. The conjunctiva in severe cases often 
assumes a spotted mahogany color. The percussion varies 
with the stage of the disease. In the earliest stage (con- 
gestion) there is little appreciable change (somewhat tympan- 
itic); 1 in the second stage (hepatization) a flat sound is 
emitted. The sound begins about the second day and is re- 
tained three to five days. During the third stage (resolution) 
the sound becomes tympanitic again. The area of dulness 
is usually confined to the ventral portion of one lung, its 
dorsal limits often describing an upward curved line. Aus- 
cultation : In the first stage crepitant rales at inspiration — 
fine crackling sounds like rubbing hair between the fingers. 
These sounds are usually present for the first twenty-four to 
forty-eight hours, then pass away. In the second stage the 
vesicular murmur is gone and there is either no respiratory 
sound audible or tubular breathing (bronchial) is heard. In 
the third stage moist rales are heard (the return rale). 
General condition : Varies greatly with the case. In mild 
attacks the appetite may be retained and the mind little 
perturbed. In severe cases there is no appetite while the 
fever is on, and the animal is very stupid and languid. 
Horses usually do not lie down until the fever drops. Small 
animals and even ponies lie down most of the time during the 
disease, and if only one lung is affected, on the diseased side. 
The urine is scanty and high colored until the fall of the 
fever when its specific gravity drops and the quantity, voided 
frequently, greatly increases. 

Diagnosis.— Acute catarrhal pneumonia may be confused 
with it. The principal differential features are: (see Table 
E.). From pleuritis it may be distinguished by auscultation 
and percussion. In cases complicated with pleuritis (pleuro- 
pneumonia) differentiation may be impossible. However, 
pleuritis is usually bilateral, the upper margin of the zone 

1 The flat percussion sound may not be obtained, if the pneumonia involves 
the central rather than the peripheral portion of the lungs (pneumonia 
centralis). 



52 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 

of dulness on percussion is horizontal and the resistance 
under the hammer pronounced. In pleuritis there is further 
a tendency for edema to form in pendent parts of the body. 
Cough is usually absent in pleuritis; present in pneumonia. 
A test puncture of the thorax may be made in doubtful 
cases. 

Complications. — (a) Heart weakness due to cloudy swel- 
ling. The beat is fast, arhythmic, and palpitating. The 
pulse may be weak (thready) and runs about 76. The 
patient is weak, may be cyanotic, superficial veins distended. 

(b) Pleuritis: A common complication, leading to effu- 
sion in the chest, displacement of the heart and characteristic 
dyspnea. (See Pleuritis.) 

(c) Gangrene of the lung: May develop during convales- 
cence. The temperature again rises, the patient continues 
to lose flesh and the expirium assumes a sweetish, fetid odor. 

(d) Further but less common complications are : Nephritis 
(albumin in urine), jaundice (catarrh of duodenum), tendo- 
vaginitis (leg swelling and lameness), founder, cerebral and 
meningeal symptoms. Purpura hemorrhagica may occur 
during convalescence. 

Course. — The usual course is typical, ending in recovery 
in two weeks. In some cases, especially in old horses, cattle 
and swine the course may be much shorter (larval or abortive 
type). Death may occur suddenly during convalescence 
from heart failure. If pleuritis complicates the pneumonia, 
the course is much prolonged. It may lead to death, or 
adhesions (lung to thoracic wall) may cause permanent 
dyspnea (heaves). 

Chronic induration of the lungs is a common termination 
following certain outbreaks. It is characterized by the 
continuation of the fever and dyspnea after the usual period 
of convalescence has passed. The patient is generally 
left short-winded. Roaring may sometimes follow an 
attack of fibrinous pneumonia. Pericarditis is a rarer com- 
plication. The prognosis is good in typical and uncom- 
plicated cases. Of importance is the behavior of the heart 
during the attack. A continued high pulse is dangerous to 
the patient. The extent of the area involved has much to 



INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS 53 

do with the outcome of the case. If confined only to the 
ventral portion of one lung, the danger is not so great as 
when the dorsal part of the lung is also involved, or if both 
lungs are diseased. When pleuritis complicates the case 
the prognosis is naturally less favorable. 

Treatment. — The patient should be placed in a light, clean 
and well-ventilated place. If feasible, keep the case out 
of doors as much as possible, guarding it, of course, against 
wind and rain. Use only light covering (in horses). The 
legs may be bandaged (use Derby bandages with cotton 
underneath). Removing the bandages once daily and 
rubbing the legs well before reapplying is helpful. The 
horse-patient should be groomed well each day. Feed any 
easily digested food which the patient can be coaxed to eat. 
Good clean oats over which a little sugar has been sprinkled 
is often tempting to the appetite. Give only small quantities 
at a time. Before feeding syringe out the mouth with 
clean water. If obtainable fresh grass is very palatable and 
nutritious. A few handfuls over which is strewn a little 
salt is often eaten with avidity. The hay should be bright 
and free from dust. Feed about 6 pounds daily, divided 
into three feeds. Roots (carrots, beets) and bran mashes 
are recommended (some horses do not like bran). Eggs 
and milk may be given if appetite is entirely gone. Keep 
pure water constantly before the patient, and where it can 
be gotten at without undue exertion. Rectal and artificial 
feeding may be resorted to in patients unable to swallow 
or without any appetite. 

Drugs. — In typical cases of fibrinous pneumonia drugs are 
often not only superfluous but may do actual harm. 

It is very important to watch carefully the heart. Minor 
irregularities may be overcome by small doses of brandy 
(§ij) mixed with ether (5ij) in a pint of water, or alcohol 
(gij) in a pail of drinking water may be kept before the 
patient, especially during the night. It may be repeated 
every three hours. Digitalis in the form of Squibb's fluid 
extract (5iv-vj), giving one dose only, has often a toning 
effect upon the heart (avoid repeated small doses of this 
drug). When the pulse reaches 80 or more and becomes 



54 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 

weak, subcutaneous doses of the oil of camphor (5j) are 
good. Caffein (3j-3ij subcutaneously) is useful. For great 
depression (general loss of arterial tone — toxemia) an intra- 
venous infusion of normal salt solution (2 to 4 quarts in 
horse) may be tried. (If heart is weak, look out for pul- 
monary edema.) Subcutaneous doses of ether and alcohol 
in 5 ss doses are valuable in this condition. 

Unless the fever be unreasonably high (106° to 108° F.) 
or threatens the heart's force, it should be let alone. In 
robust patients cold water infusions into the rectum, cold 
compresses over the chest are useful in reducing the tempera- 
ture a degree or two. Acetanilid (5iv to 3 j) combined with 
caffein (3j) is recommended. (Affect depressing.) 

To favor resorption of the exudate diurectics may be 
employed. Acetate of sodium (3j to §j) is serviceable. 
Spirits of nitrous ether (5j) is recommended. Iodid of 
sodium (5iv) is useful. In delayed resolution the resorption 
of the exudate is said to be stimulated by puncturing the 
infiltrated lung as in paracentesis thoracis. Local applica- 
tions: In severe dyspnea the application of mustard (oil of 
mustard in alcohol 1-12-16) is advisable. (Apply in airy 
room and use light blanket over patient after application.) 
An ice-bag over heart or cold compresses changed every 
fifteen minutes yield good results. 

During convalescence keep the animal as quiet as possible 
if heart be weak and assist the appetite and digestion by 
giving artificial Carlsbad salts to each pound of which 2 
ounces of nux vomica have been added. For treatment of 
complications, see these. 

Catarrhal Pneumonia ( B rone ho pneumonia) .— Definition. — 
An inflammation of the lungs affecting isolated lobules or 
groups of lobules, the exudate and desquamated cells in the 
alveoli seldom undergoing fibrinous coagulation. 

Occurrence. — Most common in very young or aged animals. 
Less frequent in the horse than in the ox, sheep, and swine. 

Etiology. — Catarrhal pneumonia occurs either as a primary 
or as a secondary affection. As catarrhal pneumonia is 
clinically a collective term it includes a group of pneu- 
monias, the causes of which are varied. It may be due to: 



INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS 55 

(a) the spreading of bronchitis to the lung parenchyma; (b) 
food entering the wind pipe in patients suffering from 
dysphagia (tetanus, milk fever, feeding too soon after 
chloroform narcosis); (c) foreign matter (dust, sand, saw- 
dust) which may be drawn into the lungs in recumbent 
patients; (d) the aspiration of pus, blood, saliva or mucus 
(head operations, patient recumbent) ; (e) unskilled admini- 
stration of medicines, especially drenches; (/) result of 
hypostasis of the lungs (recumbent position, long stable 
confinement in old horses); (g) infection, especially with 
the Bacillus bipolaris septicus (in the ox) and the Bacillus 
pyogenes. 

Cold, bad sanitation and exhaustive railway and ship 
transportations are predisposing factors. 

Catarrhal pneumonia is secondary to several acute infec- 
tious diseases as malignant head catarrh, hog cholera, 
hemorrhagic septicemia; it often accompanies tuberculosis, 
glanders, and occasionally actinomycosis. 

Symptoms. — The prodromal symptoms are those of 
bronchitis which it usually follows. As the areas of solidi- 
fication in the lung may be small and scattered, they are 
difficult to detect clinically. The cardinal symptoms are: 
cough which is short, dull, and often painful, the patient 
trying to suppress it. Nasal discharge which is at times 
copious and white in color. Fever which may run about 
104° F. The fever does not take a typical course as in 
fibrinous pneumonia, but is intermittent in character, con- 
tinuing until the termination of the disease. In aged 
horses fever is often absent. Dyspnea, the respirations are 
accelerated, and labored. Percussion is often painful and 
induces coughing. Areas of dulness may be determined, 
provided they are of the size of a clenched fist and super- 
ficially located in the lung. Auscultation: rales of a fine 
subcrepitant and whistling character. If large areas of the 
lung are involved, bronchial (tubular) breathing is heard. 
If the bronchi and bronchioli in the affected area are plugged 
with exudate, no sounds will be emitted. In the neighbor- 
ing lung tissue, however, the vesicular murmur is harsher 
than normal. Usually the physical signs of the disease are 



56 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 

noted in both lungs. The appetite is at times impaired or 
absent. Some patients, however, eat well. The general 
condition of the patient varies with the extent of the lesions. 
In some cases the dyspnea, distressing cough and fever 
greatly debilitate the patient, while in others, especially in 
horses, the general symptoms are not marked. It can 
happen that the catarrhal pneumonia is overlooked by 
the owner and the patient presented to the veterinarian 
only after pulmonary gangrene or some other termination 
has set in. 

Course. — Atypical. Depends much upon cause. Acute 
cases may terminate in healing in two to three weeks. 
Exacerbations, however, are common (formation of new foci) . 
As a rule catarrhal pneumonia takes a prolonged course 
lasting weeks or even months. Terminations: (a) healing 
in two or three weeks; (b) death from asphyxia, heart weak- 
ness, exhaustion; (c) death from pulmonary gangrene or 
septicemia (diarrhea); (d) induration of the lungs causing 
chronic dyspnea ("heaves"). 

Diagnosis. — If larger areas of the lung are involved, in 
the early stages it is difficult to distinguish catarrhal from 
fibrinous pneumonia. The following table may be of value 
on this point: 

Fibrinous Pneumonia. Catarrhal Pneumonia. 

Onset sudden. Onset gradual. 

Course and fever typical. Course and fever atypical. 

Begins as pneumonia. Begins with bronchitis. 

Percussion: Diffuse dulness over Percussion: Normal or isolated 

one lung. areas of dulness over both lungs. 

Auscultation: Bronchial breath- Auscultation: Rales. 

ing. 

A benign disease. A malignant disease. 

From glanders (horse) and tuberculosis (ox), non-specific 
catarrhal pneumonias are now best differentiated by the 
use of such scientific aids as the mallein (eye) agglutination, 
complement-fixation, tuberculin tests, etc. 

Treatment. — Place the patient in. a light, clean, and well- 
ventilated place. Apply suitable covering if the weather is 
cold. Give good, easily digested food (clean oats, bran 
mash, bright hay, grass, milk, eggs, etc.). As there is no 



INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS 57 

specific, the treatment is symptomatic and follows that 
outlined for fibrinous pneumonia. Intratracheal irrigations 
are of little value in catarrhal pneumonia, unless applied 
very early and before the lung proper is attacked (washing 
out the bronchi) following aspiration of blood and exudate 
after operations ("roaring," head sinuses). 

Foreign-body Pneumonia. — Definition. — Foreign-body 
pneumonia is a clinical term used to include all forms of 
inflammation of the lung due to the entrance of coarse 
foreign matter. 

Etiology. — Foreign-body pneumonia is due to the aspira- 
tion of dust, gases, food, liquids, blood, pus, etc. While 
it occurs in all animals the horse is the most common victim 
due to improper drenching and the frequency in this animal 
of pharyngitis, strangles, tetanus, encephalitis and purpura 
in which diseases dysphagia is a common symptom. The 
dysphagia following chloroform narcosis and attending 
forage poisoning may also lead to it. In the ox the pharyn- 
geal paralysis occurring in parturient paresis is the most 
common etiological factor, paunch contents being regurgi- 
tated and liquid medicines unskilfully given reaching the 
windpipe. Foreign material (sharp objects) may also pene- 
trate the lung from the reticulum. 

Necropsy. — On postmortem it will be noted that the 
foreign material has produced bronchitis and areas of 
bronchopneumonia. Due to the entrance of pus bacteria 
and germs of putrefaction there result purulent infiltration, 
necrosis and decomposition of the lung tissue. Therefore 
gangrene, abscess and putrefaction are found combined 
changing the lung into a miscolored, fetid, odorous, smeary 
mass. By contact the pleura also becomes involved so 
that a purulent or putrid pleuritis is present. More rarely 
there may be pneumothorax. 

Symptoms. — The onset in foreign-body pneumonia is 
usually insidious and may be entirely overlooked especially 
by the owner or attendant. The disease begins as a bron- 
chitis and bronchopneumonia (cough, rales) . When gangrene 
sets in the expirium has a sweetish odor which later becomes 
fetid. Soon nasal discharge appears which is discolored and 



58 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 

contains an admixture of lung tissue elements. On percus- 
sion, depending upon the character and extent of the lesions, 
there may be flatness, tympany, or even a "cracked-pot" 
tone emitted. The patient shows a septic fever and rapid, 
weak pulse (80 to 120). Symptoms of pleuritis (empyema) 
are not infrequent. In many cases the appetite remains 
fairly good until the end and the temperature may be 
little above normal. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis depends upon the physical 
signs of pneumonia with fetid expirium and the discolored 
nasal discharge containing bits of dead lung tissue. A 
microscopic examination will show elastic fibers from the 
parenchyma of the lung. In all pneumonias following 
unskilful drenching or where dysphagia exists foreign- 
body pneumonia should be suspected. From the stand- 
point of differential diagnosis, diseases of the teeth and 
sinuses of the head causing fetid breath must be considered. 
An examination of these parts and of the lungs should 
suffice for differentiation. Fetid bronchitis, which is most 
common in dogs, does not affect the general condition of 
the patient and is rarely fatal. 

Course and Prognosis. — Once the disease is recognized the 
course is usually about one week. The prognosis is bad, 
especially in horses, the disease leading to sapremia and 
death. Occasionally in cattle the gangrenous mass remains 
local in the lung and becomes encapsuled by connective 
tissue forming a sequester which protects the rest of the 
organism. Such cases will heal. 

Treatment. — The treatment is unsatisfactory. Intra- 
tracheal injections of antiseptics are of no value except 
in the early stages. The treatment suggested for catarrhal 
pneumonia is usually followed. 

Metastatic Pneumonia. — Definition. — A secondary pneu- 
monia the result of embolism. 

Etiology. — Metastatic pneumonia is the result of a spread 
of infection via embolism from a primary focus containing 
pus bacteria, septic bacteria or necrosis bacilli which reach 
the lung through the blood. The primary focus is usually 
an abscess occurring in the course of strangles, purulent 



INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS 59 

arthritis, gangrenous pododermatitis, phlegmon of the hind 
limbs, etc. It may also result from navel infection (thrombo- 
phlebitis) of which it is a common sequela or it may originate 
from inflammation of the jugular or saphenous veins. It 
is a frequent sequela of acute gastro-intestinal disorders in 
calves. 

Necropsy. — Metastatic or embolic pneumonia is charac- 
terized by multiple abscess or necrotic centres which occur 
throughout the lung tissue. At the same time there are 
symptoms of septicemia and pyemia. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of metastatic pneumonia are 
often quite vague, as the embolic centre cannot always 
be determined by percussion and auscultation. Where a 
primary abscess exists, and the patient suddenly shows 
septic fever, dyspnea and cough a metastatic pneumonia 
should be thought of. In the later stages symptoms of 
abscess of the lung (purulent nasal discharge, etc.) are 
significant. 

Treatment. — Treatment is unavailing. 

Interstitial Pneumonia. — Definition. — Interstitial pneumo- 
nia is an inflammation of the connective tissue of the lung 
which proliferates, causing induration or sclerosis. 

Etiology. — It is a secondary disease and may follow any 
form of pneumonia, especially the catarrhal. It most 
frequently occurs in the course of chronic pulmonary tuber- 
culosis, glanders, contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle, 
verminous pneumonia or any form of inflammation of the 
lungs which is chronic. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms depend upon the extent of the 
connective-tissue proliferation and the amount of infection. 
Briefly, they consist in dyspnea, dulness on percussion, 
absence of the vesicular murmur and the gradual emaciation 
of the patient. There is usually no increase in temperature. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of chronic interstitial pneu- 
monia is extremely difficult unless it follow an acute attack 
of croupous or catarrhal pneumonia or pleuritis. In cattle 
if due to tuberculosis it may be diagnosed by the tuberculin 
test and in the horse the presence of glanders may be deter- 
mined bv the various tests for this disease. 



60 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS 

Course and Prognosis. — The course is usually chronic, the 
disease lasting for weeks or even months. The prognosis is 
bad for, although death may not always ensue, the patient 
is left with a chronic incurable dyspnea. 

Treatment. — Treatment is of no avail. Life may be 
prolonged by treating as in catarrhal pneumonia. Edible 
animals should be slaughtered. In horses fibrolysin (gr. xv) 
given subcutaneously every other day is recommended. 

TUMORS IN THE LUNG. 

While tumors in the lung are not uncommon they rarely 
attain clinical importance, as the diagnosis is so difficult. 
They sometimes produce symptoms of dyspnea, pulmonary 
hemorrhage, flatness on percussion and emaciation. Fever 
is not present and the course is chronic. Many of them 
originate by metastasis. The most common tumors are 
sarcomas, melanomas, adenomas, fibromas, and in aged 
animals particularly carcinomas. 



CHAPTER V. 
DISEASES OF THE PLEURA. 

PLEURITIS. 

Definition. — An inflammation of the pleura. Pleuritis is 
nearly always a secondary condition in animals. 

Occurrence. — Affects all animals but principally the horse. 
In the horse pleuritis is usually a symptom of infectious 
fibrinous pneumonia; in the ox of tuberculosis, contagious 
pleuropneumonia and hemorrhagic septicemia, and in swine 
most frequently of so-called swine plague. Pleuritis, how- 
ever, may occur unattended by pneumonia, as is frequently 
observed in horses. 

Etiology.— Pleuritis in animals is always due to infection. 
Cold, which was believed to be the most potent etiological 
factor, is now considered merely predisposing (pleuritis in 
sheep following shearing; exposure of horses to cold wind 
and rain) . The microorganisms which produce pleuritis are 
many. Rarely is pleuritis a primary disease— it is most 
commonly seen in practice accompanying diseases of the 
lungs (pleuropneumonia). The microorganisms causing 
pleuritis may enter as follows: (a) through penetrating 
thoracic wounds; (b) through deep contusions on the chest 
wall, especially if rib fractures be present (kicks, blows, 
falls) ; (c) from disease foci in the lung, which are in contact 
with the pleura; (d) via blood and lymph microorganisms 
of certain specific diseases, notably those which affect 
principally the respiratory tract, may also invade the 
pleura and cause inflammation thereof (influenza, fibrinous 
pneumonia, swine plague, hemorrhagic septicemia, acute 
rheumatism). It may happen that the dominant lesions 
are in the pleura, in which case primary pleuritis is spoken of 
(pleurisy of the horse without pneumonia). 



62 DISEASES OF THE PLEURA 

As predisposing factors may be mentioned refrigeration 
(cold), overexertion, long railway transports, and acute 
diseases of the respiratory tract (laryngitis). Subacute and 
chronic pleuritis may accompany tuberculosis, glanders, 
contagious pleuropneumonia of the ox, tumors (spread of 
sarcoma or carcinoma via contiguity of tissue, or metas- 
tasis, and animal parasites (echinococcus of ox, cysticercus 
tenuicollis of sheep, sclerostomes in colts). 

Symptoms. — Depending upon whether it is acute or chronic, 
primary or secondary, the symptoms of pleuritis will vary 
greatly. In mild circumscribed and in chronic pleuritis the 
symptoms are so vague that the condition is rarely recog- 
nized clinically. In the acute form, which is at times 
primary, they are as follows: 

(a) First stage (congestion): The onset is sudden. The 
patient stops eating, seems stupid, and may show pains 
simulating mild colic. There is often a marked chill during 
which the temperature rises rapidly to 104° to 106° F. 
The muscles of the thorax (intercostals) tremble. The 
pulse is frequent (70 to 80), small and hard ("serous mem- 
brane pulse"). The respirations are accelerated (25 to 40) 
and of the abdominal type. If the pain is great, and the 
diaphragm not involved, the ribs may be rolled forward 
and held, breathing being performed by the flanks. The 
patient may not show cough or nasal discharge. 

Percussing the thorax in this stage pains the patient 
and causes coughing. Sometimes on palpating the inter- 
costal spaces sensitiveness is shown, especially in the region 
of the elbow. If the examiner's hand be laid against the 
thorax a marked fremitus may be felt. Unless the lung is 
involved in this stage there is no change in the percussion 
sound. 

The respirations seem shorter than normal and of an 
interrupted, catching character. On auscultation a rubbing, 
grating, frictional sound is heard synchronous with the 
respirations. In rare instances the grating sound may be 
heard a distance from the patient. The animal is usually 
stiff and when turned "moves as one piece" in a rigid, 
wooden fashion. 



PLEURITIS 63 

(b) Second stage (effusion) : In this stage the clinical 
picture is a good deal modified. The patient becomes more 
dyspneic, and the character of the breathing changed, 
depending upon the quantity of exudate in the chest. If 
a considerable amount of fluid forms rather rapidly in the 
thorax (25 to 40 liters), at inspiration the ribs are rolled 
forward ad maximum and at expiration, which is accom- 
plished by a double-pumping movement of the flanks, the 
lumbar region is elevated and the anus protruded, the 
manner of performing the respirations much resembling that 
noted in pulmonary emphysema. Along the costal carti- 
lages at each expiration a groove is formed. The nostrils 
are dilated and often flapping. Percussion: As high up as 
the fluid in the chest extends, a marked flatness with resist- 
ance under the hammer is noted. The flat area extends 
across the ribs in a straight horizontal line. Above this line 
subdued resonance is heard. Changing the position of 
the body will shift the horizontal line. (Only feasible in 
small animals.) Auscultation: When effusion occurs the 
frictional sound disappears (in some instances it may still 
be heard above the area of flatness), and, as a rule, no 
respiratory sounds can be determined below the horizontal 
line. Above it the vesicular murmur is harsh; tubular 
breathing is frequently present. 

The heart beat is weakened in this stage and may often 
be heard more distinctly in the right than on the left side 
of the chest. The pulse is rapid and softer than in the 
first stage. The temperature is very irregular. In sero- 
fibrinous pleuritis, when effusion takes place, it usually 
drops to nearly normal, but may rise again later. Its 
character is decidedly intermittent or even remittent. 
Very high fever speaks for purulent pleuritis. General 
condition: In acute pleuritis the patient often remains 
standing during the entire attack (horse). If the patient 
lies down in the first stage, due to the pain, it rests on the 
well side, or if the condition is bilateral, on the sternum. 
In the stage of effusion, the patient lies on the diseased side. 
In pleuritis there is a tendency to edema on pendent portions 
of the body (under chest, etc.) . A total lack of appetite persists. 



64 DISEASES OF THE PLEURA 

Course. — Mild cases make a very rapid recovery, and are 
often not recognized during life. The effusion forms rapidly, 
in three or four days the thorax may be half-filled; the 
resorption of the exudate, however, takes place gradually 
and may require two to three weeks or even several months, 
during which time the life of the patient is in jeopardy. 
The more serous the effusion, the more likely and rapid the 
resorption. With much fibrinous exudate present, adhesions 
between lung and thoracic wall are frequent. These adhe- 
sions usually persist and cause the patient to be ever 
afterward short-winded. Chronic pleurites are incurable. 
Death in acute cases may follow from asphyxia or exhaustion 
in two or three weeks. 

Diagnosis. — The pathognomonic symptom of pleuritis is 
the frictional (rubbing) sound on auscultation. A sensitive- 
ness of the intercostal spaces occurring in a disease (pneu- 
monia) which pleuritis is apt to follow is significant. In 
the second stage the horizontal line, limiting dorsally the 
extremely flat percussion sound, is characteristic. In pleuri- 
tis the onset is usually different from fibrinous pneumonia. 
In the latter the pulse is full, the conjunctiva congested 
(often mahogany-colored), there is a rusty-brown nasal 
discharge and the area of dulness on percussion is not so 
flat and resistant under the hammer. In pleuritis marked 
dyspnea is an early symptom, the pulse is hard and small 
(wiry) and on palpation muscular tremors over the region 
of the thorax are felt. Pneumonia is usually unilateral, 
pleuritis bilateral. Cough is much more easily induced in 
pneumonia than in pleuritis. The temperature is high 
usually only in the beginning of pleuritis; in pneumonia the 
fever is of the continuous type and lasts five to nine days, 
to fall by crisis. In cases complicated with pneumonia 
the recognition of the pleuritis may be difficult. Weakening 
of the heart sounds and edema of the ventral part of the 
thorax are significant. In doubtful cases the use of the 
exploring needle to determine whether effusion is present 
or not is advisable. By drawing off some of the fluid and 
subjecting it to chemical (albumin), microscopic (pus cells, 
specific bacteria), and bacteriological examination (inocula- 
tion of animals) the form of pleuritis may be determined. 



PLEURITIS 05 

Prognosis. — Should be guarded. In fibrinous forms com- 
plicating pneumonia the outlook is usually good. With 
great effusion affecting seriously the pulse, respirations and 
appetite, the prognosis is bad. If pus infection occur, 
death may be looked for. In pleuritis relapses are common. 
In cases which do recover from the prolonged acute attack, 
"heaves" (adhesions) is a common sequela. 

Treatment. — The hygienic and dietetic treatment is the 
same as in pneumonia. Local applications to the chest, 
especially cold water in the early stage (first two or three 
days, when friction sound is heard), are good. When effu- 
sion is developed, hot applications (blankets wrung out in 
hot water) are better. In protracted cases or in chronic 
pleuritis, employ sharp blisters (spirits of mustard). 

Drugs. — If there is acute pain (sensitiveness of inter- 
costal spaces, marked stiffness on turning the patient), or in 
distressing cough, morphin (gr. v) or tincture of opium 
(5iij) ma y be given. When effusion forms, diuretics and 
physics assist in the elimination of the fluid. Calomel 
(3 j) and aloes (5vj) are given. Small repeated doses of the 
fluidextract of digitalis (3j) so often recommended, should 
be administered with caution, watching its effect on the 
appetite and heart. Acetate of potash (§j), pilocarpin (gr. 
iv), arecalin (gr. j), and eserin (gr. j) should be used only 
when the heart is not too weak. 

If the quantity of effusion warrant (dyspnea) puncture 
of the thorax should be practised at once. If thoracentesis 
is properly performed it is not dangerous. The operation 
is simple: In the seventh intercostal space, close to the 
anterior margin of the rib, and about 1 inch above the 
union of the cartilage and rib, shave, disinfect, and puncture 
the chest with a small sterile trocar. It is recommendable 
to first cut through the skin with a bistoury and draw the 
incision to one side that the skin and muscle wounds do not 
cover each other when the puncturing instrument is with- 
drawn. Care should be taken to prevent air entering the 
thorax during the operation. The fluid should be removed 
slowly and if the dyspnea become worse, coughing induced 
or the pulse become weak, the cannula should be instantly 
5 



66 DISEASES OF THE PLEURA 

withdrawn and the opening covered with tar or collodion. 
Thoracentesis should be performed early and repeatedly to 
be of curative value. 

HYDROTHORAX. 

Definition. — A collection of transudate in the chest not 
due to an inflammation of the pleura. 

Etiology. — In a general way hydrothorax is due to a 
congestion in the vena cavse or its tributaries. It is most 
commonly noted in chronic heart, lung and kidney diseases 
and is usually associated with ascites, anasarca, and hydro- 
pericardium. 

It may also accompany general anemia, hydremia and 
prolonged cachectic conditions following parasitism, carcino- 
matosis, etc. 

Symptoms. — Same as the effusion stage in serofibrinous 
pleuritis. 

Diagnosis. — History, finding organ primarily attacked 
(heart, lung, kidneys) and the prolonged, feverless course 
generally suffice to secure a diagnosis. In doubtful cases, 
the thorax may be tapped and fluid withdrawn and examined. 
It is usually much clearer, less flocculent and more watery 
than pleural exudate. It is straw-yellow in color and has 
a specific gravity of 1016, the albumin content below 2 per 
cent. Leukocytes are only sparingly represented. 

Treatment. — As the primary condition is usually incur- 
able, little can be done in hydrothorax. In great dyspnea, 
thoracentesis will afford relief. 

PNEUMOTHORAX. 

Definition. — The entrance of air into the pleural sacs. It 
is rarely due to other gases. 

Etiology. — (a) Penetrating wounds through the outer 
wall of the chest or through the diaphragm (from the retic- 
ulum), (b) Rupture of the esophagus from the rough use 
of the probang. (c) Abscesses or gangrenous foci in the 
lungs which rupture, opening bronchi into communication 



PNEUMOTHORAX 67 

with the pleural sacs, (d) In rare instances rupture of the 
lung may be a cause. 

Symptoms. — Severe dyspnea, which develops usually 
rapidly and may lead to death in twenty-four hours (pul- 
monary collapse), or from the microorganisms carried in by 
the air a purulent pleuritis (empyema) develops. The 
sound on percussion has a peculiar metallic ring which is 
usually heard over the whole chest. Pleuritis develops in 
most cases which modifies the percussion sound. On auscul- 
tation often no sounds are audible. If fluid is present 
metallic gurgling sounds are heard. 

Diagnosis. — Usually not difficult in veterinary patients, 
as most cases are due to penetrating chest wounds. 

Course and Prognosis. — Usually leads to pleuritis and 
death. Cases not due to wound infection, such as may 
follow rupture of the lung, can recover. 

Treatment. — In human practice the air is pumped out of 
the pleural sacs by a special apparatus. Seldom useful in 
veterinary practice. 



PART II. 
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 



CHAPTER I. 
DISEASES OF THE HEART SAC. 

PERICARDITIS. 

Definition. — An inflammation of the heart sac. 

Occurrence. — It is usually secondary in animals, associated 
with such diseases as pleuropneumonia in the horse and the 
pleuropneumonia in hog cholera. In the ox pericarditis 
usually results from direct injury by foreign bodies which 
pass from the reticulum or rumen (traumatic pericarditis), 
or it may be due to tuberculosis. 

Etiology. — Infection. Most of the pathogenic micro- 
organisms affecting animals are capable of producing peri- 
carditis. In practice, therefore, it occurs concomitant with 
many infectious diseases (tuberculosis, influenza, hog 
cholera, hemorrhagic septicemia). The most common and 
important form of this disease seen in animals is the traumatic 
pericarditis of the ox. The frequency with which foreign 
objects (needles, wire, etc.) are found in the reticulum, to 
which attention is drawn in dealing with the diseases of the 
digestive tract, the close proximity of the reticulum to the 
pericardium, and the marked contractions of this com- 
partment of the stomach, are the most important factors 
in the etiology of this common condition. In other animals 
(horse, swine, sheep) traumatic pericarditis only occasionally 
occurs. 



70 DISEASES OF THE HEART SAC 

Symptoms. — In traumatic pericarditis of the ox, the 
heart symptoms are usually preceded by those of traumatic 
indigestion (see this). Inquiry therefore should always be 
made into the past history of the patient in this regard. 
The cardinal symptoms are as follows: (a) In the early 
stages stiffness and disinclination to move. The patient 
remains down most of the time, (b) Dyspnea when the 
patient is forced to exercise, the abdominal type of respira- 
tion predominating, (c) The pulse is rapid and irregular. 
(d) A pronounced undulation in the jugulars (venous pulse) 
is seen, (e) Later edematous swellings appear under the 
throat, neck, brisket, and chest, (f) Percussion is usually 
painful, the animal wincing and grunting when the chest 
is struck over the heart region. An increased area of cardiac 
dulness may be determined in cattle if not too fat. (g) On 
auscultation, provided no effusion has taken place, a friction 
tone like that heard in pleuritis but synchronous with the 
heart beat is heard. If the heart sac is filled with fluid 
and gas, metallic tinkling tones modify the normal heart 
sounds which are muffled and distant, (h) The patient 
usually shows rise in temperature, but the fever is generaly 
mild and atypical. Not infrequently the clinical symptoms 
of traumatic pericarditis are entirely overlooked, the first 
intimation of any trouble appearing when the patient 
drops over dead. The general condition of the patient 
due to the loss of appetite and attending infection or intoxi- 
cation (septicemia, sapremia) grows bad. The patient 
emaciates, becomes anemic, weak, and may suffer from 
diarrhea. 

Course and Prognosis. — The course in traumatic peri- 
carditis is usually a prolonged one, the condition lasting 
often several weeks or even months. Exacerbations and 
remissions are very common. As a general rule, however, 
there is a slow but steady decline. Metastases are not 
uncommon, the disease assuming the form of a pyemia, 
leading to enlargement of the joints, lameness, etc. Pneu- 
monia and pleurisy, and gastro-intestinal catarrh are frequent 
complications. Death may occur at any time during the 
disease from the foreign body penetrating the heart muscle 



H YDROPERICA RDI UM 71 

or from injury to the coronary bloodvessels causing fatal 
hemorrhage. The patient may also die from the attending 
sapremia. Occasionally cases occur in which great improve- 
ment in the condition is noted, the patient gaining in flesh, 
appetite, and strength. Usually, however, the improvement 
is only temporary. Rarer still are those instances where a 
spontaneous recovery follows the escape of the foreign 
body through an abscess to the outside world. 

Diagnosis. — While in typical and advanced cases the diag- 
nosis is easy, traumatic pericarditis in the earlier stage may 
be exceedingly difficult to recognize. Eber recommends, 
where the condition is suspected and fever exists, to give 
acetanilid (§iij) daily, which reduces the temperature but 
not the pulse which remains high (100 to 120) if pericar- 
ditis is present. In doubtful cases an explorative puncture 
of the pericardium will determine the presence of fluid. 

Treatment. — As nearly all cases are fatal, the immediate 
slaughter of the animal is recommended. In very valuable 
pregnant animals an effort to prolong life may be made by 
the use of such drugs as digitalis (§ss); caffein (3j), or oil 
of camphor (3j) subcutaneously. Stimulants (alcohol and 
ether) are also in order. In Europe puncturing the peri- 
cardium with a trocar has been employed. 



HYDROPERICARDIUM. 

Definition. — A filling of the heart sac with transudate not 
due to a pericarditis. 

Etiology. — Usually is associated with hydrothorax, ascites, 
and anasarca. It may be secondary to chronic heart, lung, 
liver, and kidney diseases, or diseases of the blood, as 
hydremia, anemia, the cachexia of chronic parasitism, and 
the last stages of chronic infectious diseases (glanders, 
tuberculosis). 

Symptoms. — First, those of the primary disease followed 
by general dropsy which involves the heart sac. The 
area of cardiac dulness is enlarged, heart tones weak, pulse 
weak, edema of the skin, dyspnea, and albuminuria. 



72 DISEASES OF THE HEART SAC 

Diagnosis. — Similar to acute pericarditis except that acute 
inflammatory symptoms (fever, pain, etc.) fail. 

Treatment. — Generally of little value, as the primary dis- 
ease cannot be eradicated. Diuretics and diaphoretics 
(pilocarpin) are indicated. Tapping the pericardium may 
be tried. 

PNEUMOPERICARDIUM. 

Definition.— Gas in the heart sac. 

Occurrence. — Rarely met with except in tramatic pericar- 
ditis of the ox. 

Etiology. — Due to gas forming in the putrid exudate con- 
tained in the pericardium, the result of sharp-pointed 
foreign bodies, which come from the reticulum, penetrating 
the organ. Rarely occurs from penetrating thoracic wounds 
involving the heart sac. 

Symptoms. — Like those noted under traumatic pericarditis: 
Dyspnea; on percussion increased area of cardiac dulness. 
Auscultation: Metallic tinkling sounds — heart beat muffled 
and distant. In some cases splashing sounds resembling 
those of a water wheel may be heard a distance from the 
patient. 

Prognosis. — Bad. Healing rare. 

Treatment. — See Traumatic Pericarditis. 

HEMOPERICARDIUM. 

Definition. — Collection of blood in the heart sac. The 
blood comes from either the heart cavities, coronary blood- 
vessels, aortic or pulmonary trunk. 

Etiology. — Spontaneous rupture or injury of the heart, 
coronary vessels, aortic or pulmonary trunks. 

Symptoms. — In most instances leads to death in a few 
minutes. Only in those cases where the hemorrhage devel- 
oped slowly would the patient survive long enough for 
clinical symptoms to appear. In such cases the symptoms 
are those of filling of the pericardium, pale mucous mem- 
branes, profuse sweating, dyspnea, rapid, irregular, feeble 
pulse, uneasiness and finally death. 



CHAPTER II. 
DISEASES OF THE HEART. 

NERVOUS PALPITATION OF THE HEART. 

Hyperkinesis Cordis. 

Definition. — A sudden, tumultuous beating of the heart of 
purely nervous origin, and independent of any lesions in the 
organ. 1 

Occurrence. — Not common in animals, but may occur in 
highly nervous horses. 

Etiology. — Nervous palpitation may result from over- 
exertion, great fear (stable fires) , or anything which produces 
undue excitement. It may be secondary to mild gastric 
indigestion and occur in anemic conditions, or may follow 
influenza. 

Symptoms. — The characteristic symptom of this disorder 
is a thumping movement of the thorax which may be seen, 
felt or heard. The patient is usually anxious, sweating 
copiously and somewhat dyspneic. On auscultation the 
heart beat is loud and fast, often at each impulse jarring 
the whole body. The pulse may be quite weak. 

Course. — Acute, lasts in most cases only a few hours to 
one day. 

Diagnosis. — Absence of organic heart disease and short 
duration of the condition are indicative. 

Treatment. — Patient should be kept quiet and in a cool 
place. Moderate walking exercise is helpful. Internally 
chloral hydrate (5j), morphin (gr. v), or bromides (gss) 
may be given. 

1 Most cases described under palpitation of the heart are undoubtedly 
due to (a) spasm of the diaphragm; (b) organic heart disease. 



74 DISEASES OF THE HEART 



SLOW HEART BEAT. BRADYCARDIA. 

Definition. — The frequency of the heart beat is less than 
normal. 

Etiology. — From a physiological standpoint it is due to a 
stimulation of the vagus nerve from diseases of the brain 
affecting course of vagus, or reflexly from gastro-intestinal 
disorders. Disease of the heart (degeneration, atrophy, 
myocarditis) may also induce it. Often the cause cannot 
be determined. 

Symptoms. — The pulse is too slow. In the horse it may 
be in extreme cases only 9-12-20 per minute. The force 
of the beat is normal and the condition of the patient good. 

Diagnosis. — To determine whether bradycardia is due to 
an irritated vagus or to some lesion of the heart itself, 
sulphate of atropin (gr. i) may be injected subcutaneously. 
If from the vagus it will temporarily disappear after giving 
the atropin. 

Treatment. — Excitants (alcohol, ether, atropin) may be 
tried if the condition produces symptoms of heart weakness, 
languor, stupor, or nervous symptoms (convulsions). 

INTERMITTENT HEART BEAT. 

Arhythmia Cordis. 

Definition. — A condition in which one or more heart beats 
are omitted. 

Etiology. — An intermittency of the heart is quite common 
in horses. It may exist for some weeks and disappear 
spontaneously. On exercise the symptom may temporarily 
disappear. Common causes are: (a) Brain diseases affect- 
ing the vagus (hydrocephalus, tumor, cerebritis) ; (b) digestive 
disorders (constipation, catarrh); (c) diseases of the heart 
itself (myocarditis, endocarditis). 

Symptoms. — One or more heart beats are dropped. It 
may be every fourth, sixth or eighth beat and occur with 
great regularity. Usually the beat following the pause is 
louder than the others. It may happen that two beats 



HYPERTROPHY AND DILATATION OF THE HEART 75 

together are dropped. Occasionally, two beats occur in 
rapid succession followed by a long pause. In some cases 
exercise emphasizes the condition, in others it temporarily 
relieves it. 

Course. — If due to some acute disease which it accompanies, 
it will disappear with the healing of the disease. In some 
cases it remains during the life of the patient, but never 
causes disorder. 

Treatment. — If secondary the disease which it accompanies 
must first be eradicated (gastric disorders). Usually no 
treatment is demanded in idiopathic cases. 

HYPERTROPHY AND DILATATION OF THE HEART. 

Definition. — Hypertrophy is an enlargement of the heart 
due to a thickening of its musculature. Dilatation is an 
enlargement of the heart due to an increase in the size of its 
cavities. The two conditions usually coexist. 

Etiology. — A pathological hypertrophy of the heart may 
be due to anything which interferes with the heart action 
from without; as an adhesion of the pericardium to the 
heart; chronic lung, liver and kidney diseases, in that they 
increase the heart's work by resisting the free flow of blood; 
or from within, as a valvular lesion. Generally the hyper- 
trophy is confined to one chamber, although all may be 
involved. When the heart has increased sufficiently in size 
and strength to overcome the obstacle, the free circulation 
is restored and the hypertrophy is spoken of as compensatory. 
In case the hypertrophy cannot overcome the obstacle, dila- 
tation will result. 

Symptoms. — A compensatory hypertrophy may not cause 
any symptoms. In hypertrophy with dilatation the symp- 
toms are as follows : The owner is attracted by the dyspnea 
which develops during work. In some instances the patient 
may have occasional attacks of vertigo or palpitations 
("thumps") when exercised. Undulation of the jugulars is 
sometimes noted. In the latter stages edema appears 
under the chest. The pulse 1 is weak and arhythmic. Per- 

1 In hypertrophy without dilatation, the pulse is full and quite strong. 



76 DISEASES OF THE HEART 

cussion : The area of cardiac dulness is increased, extending 
back as far as the 7th rib; it may extend upwardly to the 
height of the shoulder-joint. Auscultation: The heart 
beat is stronger and louder than normal. In some cases it 
may shake the whole body (palpitation). In the last stages 
general dropsy usually sets in. 

Course. — Acute cases of dilatation often recover if properly 
treated. As a rule, however, the condition, coexisting with 
hypertrophy, becomes chronic leading to general dropsy and 
death. In advanced cases any unusual exertion (hard 
pulling, racing) may result in the patient falling dead in 
harness. 

Diagnosis. — Increase in extent of cardiac dulness, abnor- 
mally loud systolic tone, weak arhythmic pulse and tendency 
to dropsical swellings are indicative of dilatation. A hard, 
full pulse with increased area of cardiac dulness on percus- 
sion, speaks for hypertrophy. From pericarditis the con- 
dition may be differentiated by the weakness of the heart 
tone and the frictional bruit in this disease. From hydro- 
pericardium by the absence of the gurgling or metallic tinkling 
sounds on auscultation. 

Treatment. — Healing only possible in acute cases of 
dilatation. Allowing the patient absolute rest and giving 
cardiac tonics, especially digitalis fluidextract (5ss) to 
which strychnin nitrate (gr. j) may be added are helpful. 
The patient should be well cared for and fed highly nutritious 
food. 

MYOCARDITIS. 

Definition. — An inflammation of the heart muscle. 

Etiology. — Myocarditis in animals is usually of infectious 
origin. In practice it is seen to accompany influenza, 
septicemia and foot-and-mouth disease. Cases occasionally 
occur in azoturia or may follow overexertion or heatstroke. 
In cattle foreign bodies penetrating the heart muscle form 
a cause. Myocarditis may further be secondary to endocar- 
ditis and pericarditis. In man myocarditis commonly results 
from arteriosclerosis which in animals is extremely rare. 

From a pathological standpoint three forms of myocar- 



ENDOCARDITIS 77 

ditis may be distinguished: (a) Acute parenchymatous, 
(6) chronic interstitial, and (c) purulent (heart abscess). 

(a) The acute parenchymatous form involves the muscle 
fibers of the heart. Macroscopically, the heart appears often 
striped or spotted (tiger heart), is of friable consistency 
and lighter color than normal. 

(b) The chronic interstitial myocarditis involves the inter- 
muscular connective tissue which proliferates, leading in 
many cases to a thinning from atrophy of the heart muscle 
with occasional local distention of the cavities (heart 
aneurysm) . 

(c) Abscess of the heart is usually seen in traumatic 
myocarditis of cattle and in pyemia. The musculature 
of the heart will contain a number of pea- to walnut-sized 
abscesses, or in some cases small, multiple, miliary pus 
centres. 

Symptoms. — Acute myocarditis begins suddenly with 
symptoms of heart weakness (palpitation, very rapid 
pulse, dyspnea). Death may be apoplectic, due to heart 
paralysis. Clinically, it is extremely difficult to distinguish 
between myocarditis and acute dilatation of the heart, or 
the parenchymatous degenerations so common in febrile 
disorders. During life myocarditis is usually not diagnos- 
able in animals. From pericarditis and endocarditis it 
may be distinguished by the absence of the characteristic 
bruits of these conditions. 

Treatment. — Heart stimulants especially injections of oil of 
camphor (5 iij)> or caffein (5j), or veratrin are recommended. 

ENDOCARDITIS. 

Definition. — An inflammation of the endocardium which 
may be (a) acute or (6) chronic. 

Acute Endocarditis. — Acute endocarditis is usually of 
infectious or hematogenous origin. It may therefore be 
due to several different microorganisms. In animals it is 
usually caused by the bacteria of septicemia and pyemia. 
The streptococci, staphylococci, and varieties of the colon 
bacillus, which have entered the blood in puerperal septicemia 



78 DISEASES OF THE HEART 

and pyemia of the ox or wound infection in the horse, are 
common causes. 

Secondarily acute endocarditis may occur as a symptom 
of various infectious diseases (erysipelas of swine, influenza 
of the horse, articular rheumatism of cattle). Endocarditis 
the result of refrigeration, traumatism or from a spreading 
of the inflammation of pericarditis or myocarditis is rare. 

Pathologically two forms of acute endocarditis are dis- 
tinguished: (a) verrucous, (6) ulcerous. These forms, how- 
ever, are frequently combined. 

The verrucous form leads to organized exudate forming 
on the margins of the valves, so-called vegetation, which leads 
to thickening, distortion and adhesions, rendering the valve 
inefficient. The ulcerous endocarditis is a necrotic inflam- 
mation of the endocardium with the development of pea- to 
hickory nut-sized ulcers. These are usually the result of 
metastasis (lungs, kidneys). 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are heart palpitation and very 
rapid, weak, often imperceptible, irregular, intermittent 
pulse (horses 80 to 160). In rare instances the heart beat 
is twice as fast as the pulse. There is dyspnea and high 
fever (104° to 105° F.). Characteristic of the condition 
are the systolic or diastolic bruits which occur, depending 
upon which valves or openings are involved. When of 
metastatic origin there may be brain (apoplexy), lung 
(asphyxia), kidney (hematuria), or limb (lameness) symp- 
toms. 

The course is either peracute, causing death in a few 
hours, or acute, ending fatally in a few weeks; or more rarely 
the course is chronic, leading to chronic valvular disease of 
the heart. 

Differential Diagnosis. — The condition may be confused 
with a number of acute disorders such as pulmonary edema, 
pneumonia (dyspnea), septicemia and puerperal fever. If 
the characteristic bruits are absent a diagnosis may be 
impossible. 

Treatment. — Consists in quiet and cold applications to 
the chest. Ulcerous endocarditis is usually incurable. 
The verrucous form, however, is more benign. Recom- 



ENDOCARDITIS 79 

mendable are digitalis (3iv) followed by strophanthus (5j). 
Heart weakness may best be combated by subcutaneous 
injections of oil of camphor. Where fever is present, 
acetanilid (§j) or salicylate of soda (5j to ij) may be tried. 

Chronic Endocarditis. — Etiology. — This condition which 
occurs in dogs, horses, swine and cattle in the order named 
usually follows acute endocarditis (septicemia, articular 
rheumatism of cattle, influenza of horses, erysipelas of 
swine and hog cholera). Otherwise the disorder may 
develop gradually following the abuse of the heart (over- 
exertion, refrigeration, psychic influence). In animals it is 
rarely due to arteriosclerosis. In rare instances valvular 
troubles may be congenital (defects in the valves, oval 
foramen, or septum) . Tumors leading to stenosis of the ostia 
are rare causes. 

Pathologically valvular troubles lead either to insufficiency 
or stenosis of the valve or ostium concerned. Commonly 
these are combined. 

General Symptoms. — The clinical features of valvular 
disease may be divided into two stages: (a) The stage of 
compensation, and (b) the stage of disturbance in compen- 
sation. 

(a) From a resulting compensatory hypertrophy the 
trouble with the valve may be for a long time overcome. 
Clinically, no symptoms exist other than either a systolic 
or diastolic murmur with hypertrophy of the left or right 
heart. The general condition and efficiency of the patient 
is not much disturbed. 

(6) In the stage of disturbance in compensation the 
compensatory hypertrophy has been partially or totally 
overcome. Dilatation displaces hypertrophy. This induces 
symptoms of heart weakness (increased, weak, inequal, 
irregular pulse), congestion of the lungs (dyspnea), conges- 
tion of the mucous membranes and the skin (cyanosis), 
undulation of the peripheral veins (venous pulse), irregu- 
larity of the heart (vertigo), congestion of the kidneys 
(albuminuria), and in general to cardiac hydropsy (anasarca, 
ascites, hydrothorax, hydropericardium), as well as anemia, 
emaciation, and weakness. 



80 DISEASES OF THE HEART 

Individual Valvular and Ostial Defects. — (a) Mitral 
insufficiency, most common in the horse, dog and swine 
(left heart). Systolic bruits very loud; accentuated second 
heart tone. Pulse normal to weaker. 

(b) Mitral stenosis: Diastolic bruits, weak pulse. 

(c) Tricuspid insufficiency: Most common valvular 
trouble of cattle (right heart). Systolic bruits, venous 
pulse, cyanosis. 

(d) Tricuspid stenosis: Diastolic bruits, venous pulse in 
the ox. 

(e) Aortic insufficiency: Diastolic bruits. Pulsation at 
base of neck; peculiar swishing sound on auscultation. 
Sometimes fremitus may be felt. Pulse strong and rapid. 
(P. celer.) 

(/) Aortal stenosis: Systolic bruits with a very small, 
slow pulse in horse and dog. Vertigo from brain anemia. 

(g) Pulmonary insufficiency : Diastolic bruits (very rare). 

(h) Pulmonary stenosis: Systolic bruits (very rare). 

Treatment. — Treatment of valvular failure is indicated, only 
in the stage of disturbance in compensation. Here the 
most valuable agent is digitalis, given in the form of Squibb 's 
fluidextract (5j). Associated with this strychnin is often 
used (gr. J to J subcutaneously) . When dropsy sets in such 
drugs as caffein, pyuretin and strophanthus are indicated. 

RUPTURE OF THE HEART. 

Rupture of the heart, when not due to traumatism, is the 
result of pathological changes in the myocardium (fatty 
degeneration, aneurysms, myomalacia, echinococcus). The 
predisposing causes are conditions which increase blood- 
pressure, such as excitement (operations, coitus, etc.); 
tympanitis or severe concussion of the body due to falls, 
blows, etc. Heart rupture leads to apoplectic death under 
symptoms of internal hemorrhage. 

ANEURYSM OF THE AORTA. 

This is a rare condition in animals due to arteriosclerosis. 
In horses it occurs most commonly at the root of the aorta 



TUMORS IN THE HEART 81 

near the bifurcation. Aneurysm also occurs in the anterior 
mesenteric and the external iliac arteries in the horse. 
Usually they produce no symptoms during life. In a few 
cases there may develop symptoms of heart hypertrophy 
with disturbed compensation and on auscultation over 
the region of the spinal column a peculiar buzzing sound is 
heard. The patient may also show epileptiform attacks. 
Usually death results suddenly and without warning from 
internal hemorrhage. 

TUMORS IN THE HEART. 

During life they are difficult to diagnose. Sometimes they 
produce symptoms of heart weakness or heart paralysis 
but generally are symptomless. The most common tumors 
are sarcomas, fibrosarcomas, and the less common, lipomas, 
myxomas, fibromas, and osteosarcomas. 



PART III. 
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



CHAPTER I. 
DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 

STOMATITIS. 

Forms. — Depending on the cause, anatomical character, 
course and species of animal various kinds of stomatitis 
are recognized. The same cause may produce different 
varieties of the disease. In practice the following forms 
are distinguished: (a) Catarrhal stomatitis; (b) vesicular 
stomatitis; (c) papulous stomatitis; (d) mycotic stomatitis. 

Catarrhal Stomatitis. — Character. — A catarrhal inflamma- 
tion of the mucous membrane of the mouth. 

Occurrence. — A very common disease of all domestic 
animals which when primary is due to irritants of various 
sorts which are taken into the mouth voluntarily with the 
food and water or involuntarily as medicines in the form 
of drenches, electuaries and boli. Catarrhal stomatitis is 
secondary to a number of infectious diseases (foot-and-mouth 
disease, influenza, Rinderpest, etc.), diseases of the stomach 
and bowels, diseases which affect nutrition (anemia, rachitis) 
and poisoning with aconite, mercury, and lead. 

Etiology. — The causes of catarrhal stomatitis are varied. 
In considering the etiology one should distinguish between 
the primary and secondary forms. 

Primary Form. — (a) Direct injuries (sharp bits, rough 
forage, foreign bodies [corn cobs, bits of bone or wood], 



84 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH 

rough manipulations during dental operations, licked-off 
body hairs, etc.). (b) Chemical irritants (plants: aconite, 
hellebore, euphorbium, tobacco, digitalis; minerals: chloral 
hydrate, bichloride of mercury, chloride of zinc, various 
blistering agents licked off the skin), (c) Thermic causes 
(hot drenches, frozen food), (d) Fungi (moulds, rusts, 
smuts and yeasts), (e) Insects (caterpillars on leaves in fall, 
leaf -lice). (/) Bacteria. 

Secondary Form. — (a) Symptomatic of diseased teeth 
(alveolar periostitis, dental caries and many surgical 
conditions of the teeth), (b) Shedding of decidious teeth 
(causing gingivitis or "lampas"). (c) Some of the infectious 
diseases (foot-and-mouth disease, Rinderpest, contagious 
pustulous stomatitis, etc.). (d) Spread of pharyngitis to 
mouth cavity, (e) Most of the diseases of the stomach and 
bowels. (/) Constitutional diseases seriously affecting 
nutrition and resistence (anemia, rachitis). 

Symptoms. — In acute cases the patients resist attempts to 
examine the mouth ("mouth shy"), will eat slowly, especi- 
ally roughage, show frequent thirst and salivation. In the 
early stage (congestion) the mucous membrane of the lips, 
cheeks and tongue is red, dry and swollen. Later the tongue 
is coated with a sticky, grayish (greenish in grass-fed horses) 
often foamy exudate. The hard palate is swollen (" lampas") 
and sometimes the tongue. There is salivation ("slobber- 
ing") a viscid, ropy saliva drooling from the commissures 
of the lips, especially marked when the mouth is opened. 
Sometimes the saliva is foamy. It may be retained in the 
mouth to be ejected at intervals. The saliva has a peculiar 
sweetish odor due to its retention and decomposition. 

Usually there are no marked lesions present. Occasion- 
ally, however, small, gray papules appear on the teeth 
surfaces of the lips and under the tongue from which later 
shallow, quick-healing ulcers develop. Constitutional dis- 
turbance is rarely noted. 

Course. — In primary stomatitis the course is benign, ending 
• in recovery in fourteen days. The course in the secondary 
form varies with the primary disease with which it is 
associated. 



STOMATITIS 85 

Diagnosis.— The recognition of stomatitis per se is not 
difficult. To determine, however, whether it is primary or 
secondary is often not easy, especially early in its develop- 
ment. From the history, the temperature, pulse and other 
symptoms of constitutional disturbance which occur in those 
diseases where stomatitis is a symptom, the diagnosis 
" secondary stomatitis" usually can be made. 

Treatment. — Once the cause is removed the symptoms 
rapidly subside. The principal indications are to change the 
food, look after the teeth, remove any foreign bodies from the 
mouth and allow the patient constant access to good drinking 
water. Various "mouth washes" are recommended. The 
following are examples: Alum water (1 per cent.), creolin 
(1 to 2 per cent.), boric acid (2 per cent.), permanganate of 
potash (1 to 200). Vinegar one-half pint, common salt one 
tablespoonful mixed together in a quart of water is useful. 
In chronic cases nitrate of silver (1 per cent.) is employed. 

Vesicular Stomatitis. — Definition. — A sporadic, feebly com- 
municable inflammation of the mouth characterized by the 
formation of vesicles in the mucosa. 

Occurrence. — The disease is seen in horses and cattle 
only. It may appear as an enzootic, affecting a number 
of horses, or even assume the proportions of an epizootic, 
a large number of animals becoming affected from infested 
food. 

Etiology. — The cause is not definitely known. Animals 
pastured on fungi-infested clovers are most commonly 
attacked. It is probable that fungi (Uromyces occultus, 
Polydesmus exitiosus) are factors. In some outbreaks in- 
fection seems to play a role. The disorder is transmissible 
by inoculation. 

Symptoms. — Following prodromal symptoms, which re- 
semble those of the initial stage (congestion) of catarrhal 
stomatitis, an eruption of vesicles appears in the mouth 
particularly on the tongue, and occasionally on the mucous 
surface of the lips, and at the commissures of the mouth. 
The vesicles vary in size from a grain of wheat to a 
small bean, are sometimes umbilicated and are filled with 
a clear serous fluid. In three or four days they erupt, leaving 



86 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH 

behind erosions which usually heal in about a week. In 
horses healing may be delayed several weeks. The patients 
are usually "mouth shy/' slobber, and show impaired 
appetite. A mild fever has been noted in some outbreaks. 

Course. — The course is rapid and benign. 

Diagnosis. — In horses vesicular stomatitis might be con- 
fused with contagious pustular stomatitis. In this latter 
disease, however, pustules appear, the eruption of which 
occurs simultaneously and frequently involves the exter- 
nal skin of the nostrils and lips. In the ox the disease 
is distinguished from foot-and-mouth disease by its feeble 
infectiveness (animal inoculation), slow spread and the 
absence of fever and foot lesions. 

Treatment. — The same as in catarrhal stomatitis. 

Papulous Stomatitis. — Definition. — A benign, contagious 
disease of the mouth of cattle, due to an ultramicroscopic 
virus and characterized by an eruption in the mucosa and 
skin around the mouth of yellowish-gray, flattened papules. 
Probably does not occur in the United States. 

Etiology. — An ultramicroscopic virus. The disease is 
readily transmitted to healthy animals by inoculation into 
the mucous membrane of the mouth, subcutaneously and 
intravenously. The mode of natural transmission is not yet 
known. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is one to two weeks. 
The nodular eruption may involve the muzzle, lips (outer 
and inner surface), palate, tongue, cheeks, and gums. The 
nodules are from the size of a wheat grain to a small pea, 
are at first red and later grayish-yellow in color. Around 
each nodule is an area of congestion. In the latter stages 
the centres undergo softening, irregular-shaped pits form- 
ing. The bases of the pits are granular, at first red or 
black and later yellow in color. By coalescence large 
areas (dollar-sized) appear. The condition may persist for 
several weeks. There is usually no general disturbance, 
although in isolated cases fever and fetid breath have been 
observed. 

Diagnosis. — The peculiar, flattened nodules which appear 
not only in the mucous membrane, but also on the external 



STOMATITIS 87 

skin (muzzle) are significant. Vesicles do not occur and the 
feet are not involved. 

Prognosis. — The disease always ends in healing. 

Treatment. — The same as in catarrhal stomatitis. As the 
disease is contagious, separation of the affected from the 
healthy is indicated. 

Mycotic Stomatitis. — Definition. — This is a non-infective 
inflammation of the mouth, muzzle, skin of the region of the 
coronets and sometimes of the udder and teats which occurs 
in cattle on pasture. It is characterized by the formation 
of minute vesicles and later ulcers which usually readily heal. 

Occurrence. — The disease is quite common in the United 
States among cattle running at pasture, and most often 
breaks out in the fall, especially when a rainy season follows 
a period of drought. 

Etiology. — The cause of mycotic stomatitis is evidently 
certain fungi which infest grasses. Clover pasture seems 
to be the most dangerous in this regard. The disease is 
often enzootic, affecting a number of animals subjected to 
like condition in the community. 

Symptoms. — The initial symptoms are those of impaired 
appetite, painful mastication and slobbering. In severe 
outbreaks lameness may be the first symptom noticed by the 
owner. On examination of the mucous membrane of the 
mouth minute vesicles are noted. Later small ulcers appear, 
particularly on the mucous surfaces of the lips, under the 
tongue and on the dental pad. Sometimes gray-colored 
fibrinous deposits are present. Erosions, scabs and crusts 
form on the muzzle and external surface of the lips. 
When the animal is lame the skin and subcutis of the 
coronet become edematous, hot and tender. In some 
instances the swelling is cracked and creviced and may 
show evidence of secondary pus infection. When the udder 
is involved scabs and fissures appear on the teats and skin 
of the udder, causing cows to resist the operation of milking. 
Milk secretion may be partially suspended. The general 
condition of the animal is involved only in severe attacks. 
They usually move about stiffly, frequently shaking their 
feet, or when standing assume the attitude of a horse with 



88 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH 

founder. The temperature may be slightly elevated (mild 
fever). There may be emaciation from inability to eat and 
in rare instances individual animals may show diarrhea. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is good; only in aggravated 
cases are losses recorded from secondary infection. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is not difficult, the disease 
occurs among pastured cattle, usually attacks only a per- 
centage of the herd, is generally benign in its course, and 
once the patients are removed from the infested pasture the 
symptoms rapidly subside. From foot-and-mouth disease 
it is distinguished by the fact that it is not transmissible 
by inoculation, does not affect sheep and swine, fails to 
develop the characteristic large vesicles and is less apt to 
involve the feet. Foot-rot and ergotism are not attended by 
stomatitis. Necrotic stomatitis of calves is seen only in 
very young animals, does not involve the external skin and 
the lesions are characterized by a necrosis of the mucous 
membrane of the mouth. The feet are not attacked. 

Treatment. — The principal indication in treating this 
disorder is to remove the cattle from the infested pastures, 
best placing them in a barnyard and feeding soft feeds. 
The animals should be given constant access to fresh water. 
It is recommended to place in the water borax (1 oz. to 1 
gal. of water). In range cattle four ounces of crude carbolic 
acid may be mixed with twelve quarts of barrel salt, the 
cattle being permitted to lick this at will. The foot lesions 
are treated according to the general principles of surgery. 
As a rule the animals rapidly recover when they are removed 
from the infested pasture. 



CHAPTER II. 
DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX. 

PHARYNGITIS. 

Sore Throat. Angina Simplex. 

Definition. — An inflammation of the pharyngeal structures 
which usually involves the soft palate and tonsils. Pharyn- 
gitis is frequently associated with laryngitis, and may 
appear as a primary or a secondary disease. 

Occurrence. — Horses and swine are the principal victims. 
Cattle and sheep are seldom attacked. When due to infection 
pharyngitis often occurs as an enzootic. The disorder is 
most common in the spring and fall when weather changes 
are sudden and frequent. 

Etiology. — Primary pharyngitis. As in stomatitis, pharyn- 
gitis may be due to direct injury to the pharynx from foreign 
bodies or chemical substances (strong medicines, poisonous 
plants, chloroform, etc.), or the giving of hot drenches. 
Refrigeration is a common predisposing cause. Infection 
with streptococci or necrosis bacillus and other bacteria 
commonly produce it. In rare instances it may be due to 
parasites (gastrus larvae). 

Secondary pharyngitis may be due to a spread of stomatitis, 
rhinitis or laryngitis to the pharyngeal mucosa or it may be 
a symptom of many of the specific infectious diseases such 
as strangles, influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, hemorrhagic 
septicemia, hog cholera, anthrax, etc. In the horse sup- 
purative pharyngitis with peri- or parapharyngeal abscess 
formation is usually a symptom of strangles. 

Forms. — From a pathological standpoint the following 
forms of pharyngitis are distinguished: (a) The catarrhal 
which is the mildest form, (b) The suppurative which 



90 DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX 

usually leads to abscess formation about the pharynx, (c) 
Croupous, a pseudomembrane appearing over the mucous 
membrane, (d) Diphtheritic, a necrosis of the mucous 
membrane associated with which is phlegmon and swelling 
of the lymph glands. Diphtheritic pharyngitis commonly 
is associated with foreign body pneumonia and general 
septicemia. 

Symptoms. — The most conspicuous symptom of pharyn- 
gitis is difficulty in swallowing (dysphagia). In the horse 
this is expressed by regurgitation through the nostrils of 
fluids (drinking water) and food. In swine the patient holds 
the head and neck stiffly, is restless and often squeals when 
it attempts to swallow. In acute pharyngitis the solid food 
may be ejected from the mouth after being partially chewed. 
As saliva is swallowed only in part, slobbering is a common 
symptom. The patients usually hold the head extended, 
nose poked out and are disinclined to flex the head upon 
the neck. Palpation over the region of the pharynx 
shows the parts to be hot and tender. There is usually 
bilateral nasal discharge mixed with saliva and food par- 
ticles. The patient usually coughs, especially when the 
upper trachea is pinched (larynx involved). In severe 
cases (phlegmon, abscess, diphtheritis) there may be pro- 
nounced dyspnea (edema of glottis), rattling sounds in the 
throat and marked swelling of the subparatoid region. If 
embolic or foreign body pneumonia is present, the expira- 
tion becomes fetid, there is dulness on percussion over the 
thorax and rales and bronchial tones on auscultation. Fever 
is present in most cases, especially in those arising from 
infection, the temperature reaching 104° F. Pharyngitis 
due to traumatism or chemical action is only associated 
with fever when secondary infection takes place. If the 
appetite is impaired, the patient loses flesh during the attack. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of pharyngitis is usually not 
difficult, especially in animals where an ocular examination 
of the throat is possible. In horses, however, where this is 
not permissible it is more difficult. To determine whether 
the condition is primary or secondary one must pay especial 
attention to the other symptoms present, such as would 



PARALYSIS OF THE PHARYNX 91 

occur in strangles, influenza, etc. Obviously the examiner 
should be on the alert for foreign bodies and tumors in the 
pharynx which produce symptoms of dysphagia. 

Course. — The course is very varied. A simple catarrhal 
pharyngitis in horses usually heals in three or four days. 
In swine, however, the termination is often fatal. Suppura- 
tive pharyngitis leading to secondary abscess and ulcers are 
often quite obstinate and may continue until surgical inter- 
ference provides drainage for the pus. Pharyngeal paralysis 
and roaring are not uncommon sequelae. Death may occur 
from asphyxia, septic infection or intoxication or from 
pulmonary gangrene. 

Treatment. — The patient should, if possible, be placed in 
a warm, well- ventilated stable free from dust and irritant 
gases. Only soft foods (gruels, bran mashes, grass) should 
be fed. In swine, milk may be given. In horses where 
dysphagia is complete on account of the danger of even fluids 
entering the lungs the patient should be made to fast for 
two or three days or fed and watered through a stomach- 
tube or through the rectum. Chlorate of potash (1 oz. to 
2 gals, of water) is popularly used. For threatening dyspnea 
tracheotomy should be employed. Subparotid abscesses 
should be opened and drained. Local applications, hot 
water (Priessnitz cataplasm) are helpful. Infrictions of 
gray mercurial ointment are recommendable. Strong 
blistering liniments, however, should be avoided. Local 
applications are too dangerous in the larger animals. Drench- 
ing should be prohibited. When the patient is able to swallow, 
expectorants such as tartar emetic and ammonium cblorid 
combined with powdered licorice root may be given as an 
electuary. Symptoms of septicemia (high temperature, 
rapid pulse, muddy mucous membranes, etc.), are best 
combated with large doses of oil of camphor administered 
subcutaneously. In swine when suffocation threatens, an 
emetic should be given (white hellebore or ipecac, grains xxv). 

PARALYSIS OF THE PHARYNX. 

Definition. — Any condition of the pharynx which interferes 
with swallowing. 



92 DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX 

Etiology. — Paralysis of the pharynx is usually secondary 
to: (a) An acute pharyngitis which accompanies an attack 
of strangles (parapharyngeal abscess). (6) Forage poisoning 
of which it is often a prominent symptom, (c) Bulbar 
paralysis in diseases of the central nervous system (menin- 
gitis, cerebrospinal meningitis), (d) Tumors in the pharynx 
(cysts, papillomas, polypi, carcinomas) and more rarely 
along the course of the pneumogastric nerve, (e) In certain 
infectious diseases (rabies, acute infectious bulbar paralysis 
of cats). (J) In certain intoxication diseases (parturient 
paresis of cows.) 

Symptoms. — The principal symptom is dysphagia. In 
horses and cattle food and water mixed with saliva are 
regurgitated through the nose. If no food is taken drooling 
from the mouth occurs. Attempts at swallowing produce 
loud, gurgling sounds. Palpation of the pharynx through 
the mouth fails to produce contraction of the pharyngeal 
muscles. 

Course. — The course depends upon the cause. When due 
to inflammation healing may follow in a few weeks (rupture 
of abscess). The successful removal of tumors will im- 
mediately arrest the symptoms. When due to forage 
poisoning or acute diseases of the central nervous system 
(rabies, bulbar paralysis) the course is rapid and fatal. 
In parturient paresis most cases recover under modern 
treatment (air inflation of the udder). As a general propo- 
sition prolonged paralysis of the pharynx is serious, as it 
prevents the proper nutrition of the patient, and from food 
and saliva entering the windpipe and lungs frequently is 
followed by fatal foreign body pneumonia. 

Diagnosis. — A careful palpation and inspection, when 
possible, of the pharynx should be made in all cases to 
exclude foreign bodies (corn cobs, pieces of wood, etc.) or 
to determine whether tumors or parapharyngeal abscesses 
are present. 

Treatment. — As noted, in cases of paralysis due to acute 
inflammation (abscess) a spontaneous recovery may occur. 
Surgical intervention is often effective (see Surgery). Blisters 
and the electric battery applied to the external throat rarely 



PARASITES IN THE PHARYNX 93 

do much good. Subcutaneous injections of nerve tonics 
(strychnin nitrate gr. J-J once daily) are recommended. 
While the patient is unable to swallow it should be fed through 
a stomach-tube. Obviously animals suffering from rabies 
should be destroyed. 

PARASITES IN THE PHARYNX. 

Larva? of the bot flies (Gastrophilus equi and G. hsemor- 
rhoidalis) sometimes are found attached to the upper wall 
of the pharynx. In rare instances they have been known 
to induce severe pharyngitis, or by entering the larynx, 
suffocation. 

Horse leeches (Hsemopis sangui suga) affect horses and 
mules in southern countries. They attach themselves to 
the wall of the pharynx and suck blood. Their presence is 
suspected from nasal and buccal hemorrhage which they 
occasionally induce. Large numbers may cause fatal loss 
of blood or serious anemia. The treatment usually advised 
is to irrigate the throat with salt and vinegar or creolin 
(2 per cent.). Inhalation of turpentine or ammonia fumes 
is also useful. Prevention consists in filtering the drinking 
water. 

Hungarian flies (Simulia columbacceusis) attack Hungarian 
cattle and sometimes reach the pharynx through the mouth 
and nose. Occasionally they produce serious pharyngo- 
laryngitis, leading to suffocation. 



CHAPTER III. 
DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS. 

GASTRO-INTESTINAL CATARRH OF THE HORSE. 

Catarrhal Gastro-enteritis. 

Definition. — A catarrhal inflammation of the mucous 
membrane of the stomach and bowels. While it occurs as a 
primary disease, it is often a secondary condition. It may 
be acute or chronic. 

Occurrence.— Gastro-intestinal catarrh is a very common 
disease of horses. 

Etiology. — Primary gastro-intestinal catarrh is due to: 
(a) Bad food (mouldy forage, smutty oats, rotten straw), 
forage containing irritant weeds or sharp objects. Food 
which is too hot or, on the other hand, frozen and food con- 
taining foreign material, as sand. 

(b) Good food injudiciously fed. (Too rapid eating with 
incomplete mastication when very hungry, not enough 
saliva being mixed with food hastily swallowed; overloading 
stomach. Sudden change from accustomed to unaccustomed 
foods, as oats to corn, corn to barley or wheat, etc.) 

(c) Water. Large quantities of cold water when hot and 
fatigued. Water from stagnant pools. 

(d) Disturbance in mastication (bad teeth). 

(e) Psychic influences. (Extreme nervousness in race 
horses, casting, tying head too high, pain following operations 
or wounds.) 

(/) Animal parasites (ascarides). 

(g) Irritant drugs and poisons (arsenic, calomel, acids, 
alkalies) . 

Chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh is due to much the same 
causes as the acute but acting less intensively. They are : 

(a) Bad food (sanded food, frozen food). 

(6) Improper feeding. 



GASTRO-INTESTINAL CATARRH OF THE HORSE 95 

(c) Bad teeth (sharp teeth, split teeth, alveolar periostitis, 
caries, etc.). 

(d) Vices (wind sucking, cribbing). 

(e) Chronic diseases of liver, lungs, heart (induce congestion 
of portal system). 

(/) Parasitism. 

(g) Senility (most decrepid "anatomy skates" suffer from 
chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh). 

Acute gastro-intestinal catarrh is secondary to acute 
general infectious diseases (influenza, strangles), blood 
diseases (anemia, leukemia, pseudoleukemia, etc.). It may 
also be embolic in origin from strongylus armatus in anterior 
mesenteric artery. 

Symptoms. — Gastric Symptoms. — Impaired, lost or capri- 
cious appetite. In some cases the appetite is vitiated (eat 
unnatural th ings) . The patients drink little water. Tendency 
to yawn and vomiting is rare. The mucous membranes are 
"muddy," discolored, those of the mouth often coated with 
soapsuds-like foam. The expirium is sweetish, nauseating. 
The pulse, respirations and temperature are usually little 
affected in primary cases. The patient is languid, lazy, 
sweats and tires easily when at work. 

Intestinal Symptoms. — If the stomach is not involved 
appetite may be normal. If diarrhea exist there is great 
thirst. The peristalsis is lively and the borborygmus may 
be audible quite a distance from the patient. Colicky pains, 
especially after eating or drinking. Dung passed at first 
in small, hard, mucus-covered pellets, later softer (cow-dung 
consistency) and finally diarrhea, the discharges very fluid 
and fetid. Anal flatus is frequent, loud and fetid. Some 
patients are sensitive to palpation over region of small 
bowels. Icterus appears if duodenum is involved. Urine 
is acid; indican increased. In chronic cases on account 
of the irreparable connective-tissue thickening of the bowel 
mucous membrane and the atrophy of the glands the nutri- 
tion of the organism suffers. The patient loses flesh, the 
abdomen becomes "tucked up," the hair coat dull, long 
and erect, the skin "scurfy," harsh, inelastic and leather- 
like ("hide bound"). Anemia, emaciation, cachexia appear 



96 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

toward the end. Vertigo and symptoms of immobility 
appear in some cases. 

Course and Prognosis.— Acute gastro-intestinal catarrh 
usually heals in three to seven days if the case is properly 
handled. It rarely becomes chronic. Chronic cases, how- 
ever, with frequent exacerbations and remissions, last for 
months and finally lead to death from inanition. The 
prognosis in acute cases in very young or very old patients 
is less favorable. The mortality is about 1 per cent. Chronic 
catarrhs are much more serious and especially in old horses 
with bad teeth and where a prolonged treatment with 
regulation of the diet is not feasible, usually end in death. 

Treatment. — A hygienic and dietetic treatment is all 
important. The surroundings of the patient should be light, 
clean and well ventilated. Good grooming should be insisted 
upon. Examine and if necessary "dress" the teeth. In 
acute catarrh it is advisable to withhold food for two or 
three days or permit only small quantities of easily digested 
food (fresh grass, fine timothy hay, linseed meal, bran 
mashes if palatable to patient). The following mixture is 
suggested: oats 2 parts; bran 1 part; malted barley 1 
part. Scald or steam and let stand twenty-four hours, then 
feed. A teacupful of linseed which has been boiled to a 
jelly in a gallon of water and poured over a bran mash is 
useful. Allow the patient plenty of salt and free access to 
water. The medicinal treatment is largely symptomatic. 
In overloading of the stomach use: 

l 

1$ — Hydrargyri chlorid . 3iv 

Pulv. sacchari. ..." 5ij 

M. f. pulv. Nr. iv. 
Sig. — One daily. 

2 

1$ — Arecalin gr. ss 

Aqu. dest 3iiss 

M. D. S. — One dose subcutaneously. 

3 
To arrest fermentation: .., 

]^ — Acid hydrochlor 3ss 

In bucket of drinking water. 



BLOATING IN THE OX 97 

Or: 

4 

1$ — Creolini Pearsonii §ss 

Pulv. rad. glycyrrhiza 5J 

Pulv. althse et aqu. q. s. I. boli Nr. iij. 
Sig. — Daily one bolus. 

5 

1$ — Sodii sulph 3vss 

Potassii sulph gr. xv 

Sodii bicarb 5ivss 

Sodii chlorid 3iiss 

Sig. — Tablespoonful in each feed. 

To the above gentian, rhubarb or calamus may be added. 
Diarrhea is combated by employing first a laxative followed 
with antiseptics (creolin (§j) or opium (3j) or styptics such 
as tannin (3j), acetate of lead (3j), silver nitrate (gr. x-xv) 
dissolved in rain water) . Starch water, alum water per rec- 
tum or a solution of silver nitrate (1 to 500), alum or tannin 
(2 per cent, solution) are very useful in persistent diarrheas. 

In threatened collapse oil of camphor (5ij) subcutaneously. 

BLOATING IN THE OX. 

Tympanites. 

Definition. — A rapid distention of the abdomen of cattle 
due to gas formed from the fermenting contents of the 
rumen and reticulum. 

Occurrence. — A very common disorder especially among 
cattle on pasture during hot, damp weather. Clover and 
alfalfa pastures are most dangerous in this regard. 

Two clinical forms of bloating are recognized. 

1. Acute tympany. 2. Chronic or periodical, mild 
tympany. 

Etiology. — 1. Acute tympany, (a) Pasturing or feeding 
green grasses, especially legumes such as clover, red clover, 
alfalfa, vetches, peas, or such foods as buckwheat, swamp- 
grasses, etc. Such grasses are most dangerous just before 
they bloom, particularly when wet with rain or dew. Young 
grass growing in stubble fields is a common cause, (b) 
Feeding foods which readily ferment, such as potatoes, beets 
7 



98 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

(residue of sugar beets), malt, withered, heated grass, etc. 
(c) Certain toxic plants (spotted hemlock, water hemlock, 
colchicum, tobacco), (d) Occlusion of the esophagus (choke) 
will induce bloating if the stomach contents are of a kind 
which easily ferments. 

Symptoms. — There is a rapid distention of the abdomen, 
especially of the left side. The abdomen assumes the shape 
of an apple and is of the consistency of a partially inflated 
pneumatic tire. On percussion a hyperresonant tone is 
emitted. On auscultation no peristalsis is audible. The 
patient is usually quite dyspneic (mechanical compression 
of lungs, CO2 intoxication) breathing with open mouth 
and tongue protruding. The mucous membranes become 
cyanotic, there is restlessness, loss of appetite, suppressed 
rumination and eructation of gas through the esophagus. 
Regurgitation of food masses occurs occasionally. 

Diagnosis. — Usually easy. The rapid distention of the 
abdomen, characteristic indications of gas on percussion, 
dyspnea and anxiety suffice for a diagnosis. Chronic bloat 
is much slower in development and does not lead to serious 
distention. The bloating which attends choke has a different 
history, belching is absent and by using the probang the 
obstruction is encountered. 

Course.— The course is rapid, in some cases the accumulation 
of gas, which occupies only an hour or so, leads to death from 
asphyxia (CO2 intoxication) in a few hours. Other cases 
develop slower, the excess gas being belched out from time 
to time, eventually leading to spontaneous recovery. 

Prognosis. — Acute bloating is always serious, especially 
in sheep. If, however, treatment is prompt and properly 
administered recovery soon follows. 

Treatment. — Various methods of relieving bloating are 
recommended. Generally speaking they may be placed in 
one of two groups: (a) Palliative; (b) Radical. 

(a) Among palliative measures are: (a) Kneading the 
abdomen. The abdomen is gently but firmly massaged by 
the knee of the operator, the fore parts being elevated by 
standing the patient on a steep incline. Sheep may be made 
to stand on their hind legs. Driving the patient up a steep 



BLOATING IN THE OX 99 

hill yields good results in milder cases. (6) Cold water 
irrigation to the flanks. Bloated sheep may be driven 
through a stream of water, (c) Inducing belching by irri- 
tating the throat with a blunt instrument inserted through 
the mouth, the tongue being drawn forward. Less efficient 
is the use of a bit made of twisted straw and smeared with 
tar. (d) Passing a hollow probang is rarely of value, as it 
soon becomes blocked with food masses. In severe dyspnea 
it is contra-indicated. That the above cited methods may 
be combined is obvious, (e) So-called "absorbent" drugs 
are sometimes employed (burnt magnesia, 10 per cent.; 
lime water, spirits of ammonia, 2 per cent., and soap 2 per 
cent.). Turpentine in oil (§ij to Oj of oil) or formalin (§ss 
to water Oij), are commonly employed. Veratrin, creolin 
and alcohol are sometimes given. The use of drugs in the 
treatment of acute bloating plays a very subordinate part. 
The effect is largely due to the belching which the act of 
drenching induces. 

(b) Radical measures: When the life of the patient is 
threatened by severe dyspnea or the application of the 
palliative measures are not advisable or have proven in- 
sufficient, puncturing the rumen with a trocar is often life 
saving. The instrument which should be sterile is plunged 
into the centre of the triangle forming the hollow of the left 
flank, or, in case the landmarks are obliterated by the 
bloating, where the distention is greatest. If time is available, 
shaving and disinfecting the skin at the point of operation is 
recommended. In withdrawing the canula the trocar should 
be first inserted and care taken that the skin is not pulled 
loose from the underlying connective tissue, as this permits 
air to enter and may lead to infection. In case the operation 
must be repeated it is advisable to make a fresh wound rather 
than use the old puncture. In thick-skinned animals an 
incision through the skin only may be made with a sharp 
bistoury which facilitates the insertion of the trocar. After 
withdrawing the trocar the wound may be dressed with 
tar or any antiseptic. After the bloating is relieved the 
patient may be given a physic (Glauber's salts, 1 lb., oil Oj), 
and give a restricted diet. 



100 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

Prophylaxis. — It is recommendable to feed cattle about to 
be placed on clover or alfalfa pastures a quantity of dry hay 
before being turned out. Cattle grazing in fields covered 
with rich pasture or sheep on stubble fields should be care- 
fully watched by attendants. Farmers should keep trocars 
handy, as in acute primary bloat a veterinarian cannot 
always be called early enough to prevent death. 



CHRONIC OR HABITUAL TYMPANY. 

Etiology. — This form of bloating which is milder than the 
acute primary is always a secondary condition. It is usually 
due to: (a) chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh, (b) Adhesions 
sometimes the result of traumatic indigestion, (c) Tuber- 
culosis of the mediastinal lymph glands which press upon 
the esophagus so reducing its lumen that belching is inter- 
fered with, (d) Hair balls in cattle and wool balls in sheep 
(infrequent), (e) Stenosis or impaction of the intestines 
(rare) . 

Symptoms.- — The symptoms consist in a gradually develop- 
ing usually moderate distention of the left flank. The 
condition is usually an intermittent one and an attack 
follows the ingestion of food which easily ferments. In a few 
individuals the distention may be permanent. There is 
usually not much disturbance of the general condition. The 
animal may eat, ruminate and seem in normal health except 
for the distention of the abdomen. In some cases the patient 
may show symptoms of indigestion. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of chronic tympany is usually not 
difficult, although to determine the exact cause of it during 
the life of the patient may be impossible. It is advisable in 
all cases to test the animal with tuberculin, and at the same 
time carefully sound the esophagus with a probang to see 
whether tuberculosis exists or not. 

Prognosis. — While chronic tympany usually does not lead 
to immediate death the prognosis is more serious than in 
acute primary bloating, as the causes cannot always be 
removed. 



SO-CALLED COLICS OF THE HORSE 101 

Treatment. — The treatment is practically the same as 
that suggested for acute tympany to relieve bloating. This 
may be followed by the treatment advised for indigestion 
in cattle. Where there is reason to believe that the inter- 
mittent bloating is due to some foreign body in the stomach, 
rumenotomy may be performed for relief. This is especially 
indicated in periodic tympany of calves. 

SO-CALLED COLICS OF THE HORSE. 

The term colic is a collective one and applies to all con- 
ditions which cause abdominal pain. Colic is therefore a 
symptom and not a disease. While most abdominal pain^ 
come from the stomach and bowel they may also eminate 
from a number of other organs. Acute diseases of the peri- 
toneum, liver, kidneys, urinary bladder, uterus, ovaries, 
esophagus and pleura (rarely) may, too, be accompanied by 
symptoms usually termed "colic." To consider all con- 
ditions in the horse which produce more or less violent 
abdominal pain a specific disease, and to treat them all more 
or less alike, is unscientific and a menace to the patient. 

In the older literature abdominal pain due to stomach and 
bowel disorders were called "true colics," while abdominal 
pains originating in other organs were known as "false 
colics." 

Were it possible in all cases to make an accurate diagnosis 
the clinical term "colic" would disappear from veterinary 
as it has from human medicine. 

The principal conditions which produce severe gastro- 
intestinal pain named in order of frequency are: (a) Impac- 
tions of masses of feces in the small and large intestines. 
(b) Impactions of the small or large intestines complicated 
with displacement of the bowel, (c) Distention of the 
stomach with food masses or gas, and (d) A primary inflam- 
mation of the walls of the stomach and bowels. 

Simple impactions, impactions with displacement and 
distention of the stomach may become complicated by 
rupture of the wall leading to peritonitis or peritoneal 
sepsis. Following displacements enteritis and peritonitis 



102 DISEASES OP THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

usually occur and from the absorption of toxins and bacteria 
contained in the stationary fecal mass an intoxication or 
infection of the patient may result. As a general proposition 
gastro-abdominal pain appears suddenly, lasts for several 
hours and ends in the recovery or death of the patient. 
Occasionally, however, due to some organic lesion in the 
bowel wall (stenosis, tumors, ulcers or abscesses, diverticula, 
dilatation of the cecum) or hernias or intestinal stones or 
parasites, the symptoms of pain may last for several days 
or weeks. They are, however, usually intermittent and 
not continuous. 

Etiology. — In general those symptoms of pain in the horse 
•which were formerly designated "true colics" are due to 
causes which may be classified under two groups: (1) 
Predisposing, which may be either anatomical or patho- 
logical, and (2) exciting or immediate causes. 

1. Predisposing Causes. — Anatomical. — To the ana- 
tomical causes may be ascribed the peculiar anatomical 
arrangement of the stomach and bowel in the horse. The 
small stomach and peculiar implantation of the gullet which 
make vomiting difficult, long mesentery, narrow ileocecal 
opening, the pouch-like dilatation and funnel-like termina- 
tion of the right upper colon, the pelvic flexure, and the 
large cecum with both of its openings at the upper end, 
are the principal anatomical factors which interfere with 
the normal progress of the ingesta. 

Pathological. — Diseases of the digestive organs: for 
instance, diseases and irregularities of the teeth, catarrh of 
the mucosa of the stomach and bowels, internal abscesses, 
paralysis with dilatation of the cecum or rectum, stenosis 
of the ileum, tumors, hernias, enteroliths and animal parasites 
in the bowel and bloodvessels. 

2. Exciting Causes. — The exciting causes of gastro- 
abdominal pains are found chiefly in the food. Good food 
if taken in too large quantities, food which is unfit (wet 
straw), sudden changes from one kind of food to another, 
food difficult to digest (rye, barley), food which is ferment- 
ing (new hay, new oats, new corn) food infested with fungi, 
or toxic plants, and feeding at irregular intervals are the 



SO-CALLED COLICS OF THE HORSE 103 

principal exciting causes. Indirectly the weather is of im- 
portance. Very hot or cold, damp weather which no doubt 
influences metabolism is an etiological factor to be reckoned 
with. Finally, overexertion, especially in hot weather and 
after a heavy feed, or, on the other hand, lack of exercise 
are causes. In rare instances the vice known as "wind 
sucking" may induce gastric distention and pain. 

Statistics. — Morbidity. — About 10 per cent, of all the 
diseases of horses and about 50 per cent, of all of the inter- 
nal diseases are attended by gastro-intestinal pain. The 
mortality is about 10 per cent., divided as follows: 

Displacement of colon 1.5 per cent. 

Volvulus of small intestine . . . . . . 1.5 

Rupture of stomach 1.5 

Simple obstipation 1.5 

Rupture of cecum 1.0 

Rupture of colon 1.0 

Embolism, tumors, enteroliths, hernias, and 

animal parasites 1.0 " 

Forms. — From a practical standpoint so-called colics may 
be classified as follows: 

(a) Acute dilatation of the stomach. 

(b) Simple impaction of the intestines (small or large 
intestines). 

(c) Impaction complicated with displacement of bowel. 

(d) Embolic colic. 

(e) Spasmodic colic. 
(/) Worm colic. 

Acute Dilatation of the Stomach (Gastrectasis) . — Defini- 
tion. — By acute dilatation of the stomach we understand a 
sudden gaseous distention of the organ due to an unusual 
fermentation of its contents. A primary and a secondary 
dilatation are distinguished. 

Occurrence. — This condition is not uncommon in horses, 
forming about 10 per cent, of the cases of colic. 

Primary dilatation is due to overfeeding or more commonly 
to irrational feeding, especially where large quantities of corn, 
barley, bran or chop are fed. Horses which are fed irregularly, 
such as cab horses, express-wagon horses, etc., which often 



104 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

eat their feed out of a nose bag and are placed at hard work 
too soon thereafter are the most frequent sufferers. On the 
other hand, horses which are regularly fed or on pasture are 
only occasionally attacked. There can be no doubt that 
extremes in atmospheric temperature may predispose an 
animal to an attack. It is commonly observed, therefore, 
during very hot weather, especially when humid, or on the 
other hand, during very cold weather, particularly when damp. 
Secondary dilatation is due to stasis of the gastric contents 
resulting from impaction of the bowel (either simple or 
complicated). Secondary dilatation is more common than 
primary. 

Diagnosis. — As a general proposition gastric dilatation 
may be diagnosed if a clear history of the kind of work, 
food and method of feeding is obtainable, and a careful 
examination of the patient made. In most cases the attack 
of gastric pain comes on just after feeding or in some cases 
during feeding. However, there are exceptions to this and 
attacks are not infrequent as long as seven or eight hours 
after the consumption of a meal. The patient is usually 
dyspneic which, depending upon the degree of the dilatation, 
will vary. It is usually quite marked, however, and due to the 
hindrance offered the diaphragm by the distended stomach. 
The dyspnea increases when the animal lies down. The 
expression of the face is usually staring and anxious. The 
conjunctiva in the early stages is slightly congested, in 
severe cases cyanotic and "muddy." Depending upon the 
duration and the severity of the attack the pulse varies from 
normal frequency and strength to weak, often imperceptible, 
the number going as high as 80 to 100. The temperature 
varies between 100.4 to 101.9° F., although where the con- 
dition is protracted it often reaches 104.5° F. Symptoms 
of pain are usually not very marked except in the beginning. 
The intestinal peristalsis in nearly every case is partially 
or entirely suppressed due to the associated involvement of 
the bowel. In mild attacks there is usually little or no 
sweating, but in severe cases the sweat outbreak may be 
profuse. A symptom of great diagnostic importance but 
unfortunately not always present is esophageal eructation 



SO-CALLED COLICS OF THE HORSE 105 

(in 48 out of 142 cases, Behrens). Vomiting is an occasional 
symptom which by no means speaks for rupture of the 
stomach. In not over 20 per cent, of the cases of vomiting 
does rupture precede or follow the act. Rupture of the 
stomach not infrequently is the result of dilatation and is 
often not attended by vomiting. A very valuable aid to 
diagnosis is the use of the stomach-tube, through which, 
when introduced, is discharged a large quantity (2 to 5 gal.) 
of fluid, gaseous, acid, partially digested food. Unless the 
gastric dilatation is complicated with intestinal disorder a 
rapid disappearance of the symptoms of colic follow the use 
of the tube. According to some authorities, displacement of 
the spleen is a tangible symptcm of gastric dilatation. 
This organ may be felt through the rectum, where it has 
become displaced posteriorly lying in the region of the 
left flank. In as much as such a displacement has been 
ncted in apparently healthy and even fasting horses this 
symptom is not pathognomonic. While the spleen may be 
reached per rectum, it is sometimes difficult to feel it through 
the wall of the bowel overlying the hand. 

Course. — In mild cases the symptoms may subside in a 
few hours, but very frequently a catarrh of the stomach 
remains behind which persists for two or three days. In 
some instances gastritis sets in, leading to death. Foreign 
body pneumonia is an occasional complication due to 
aspiration after belching or vomiting. Some patients die of 
suffocation, but more commonly the condition leads to 
rupture of the stomach. 

Treatment. — The only safe method of treating this disorder 
is to use the stomach-tube, which permits the imprisoned 
gas to escape, bringing with it large quantities of the gastric 
contents. The stomach may then be washed out (lavage) 
by repeated injections of lukewarm water to which creolin 
has been added, siphoning out as much as possible after each 
injection. If applied early this method will yield to healing 
in nearly 100 per cent, in cases of primary dilatation and 50 
to 75 per cent, of secondary dilatation. The use of mild 
laxatives such as salts, aloes, etc., are rarely indicated and 
are effective only in mild cases. Barium chlorid, arecalin 



106 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

and eserin are dangerous in that they may cause rupture of 
the stomach. 

Simple Impaction of the Intestines. — Definition. — Simple 
impaction of the bowel (obstipation) consists in an accumula- 
tion of feces which obstruct the lumen of the bowel. After 
a time the bowel surrounding the impacted mass loses its 
tonicity, dilates and becomes paralyzed. 

Occurrence. — Simple impactions are very frequent in 
horses. According to the records of the Berlin Clinics 
75 per cent, of the cases of colic are due to this cause. The 
frequency of this disorder, however, varies with the kind of 
food and manner of feeding, so that these figures do not apply 
to all parts of the world. For instance, in Budapest the 
statistics show a much lower prevalency (6 to 20 per 
cent.). 

Etiology. — The exciting causes of this form of colic are due 
to feeding food rich in cellulose and wood fiber, the character 
of this type of food requiring that large quantities be ingested 
to supply nutrition. Straw, chaff, corn fodder, clover or 
alfalfa which is not young and tender are therefore causes. 
Overfeeding any sort of food may have a like effect. Foods 
which contain a large amount of mineral matter or earth, 
sand, etc., often lead to impaction (bran, barley, swamp 
hay). 

Horses suffering from chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh, 
and those with diseased teeth preventing proper masti- 
cation are commonly victims. Old and very fat horses which 
are not exercised sufficiently are predisposed. 

Impaction may also be secondary to pathological conditions 
of the bowel (dilatation of the cecum, stenosis of the ileum, 
paralysis of the rectum, enteroliths, worm parasites and 
embolism) . 

Forms. — From the standpoint of diagnosis two forms of 
simple impaction are distinguished: 
Impaction of the small bowel. 
Impaction of the large bowel. 

Impaction of the Small Bowel. — Diagnosis. — The 
principal symptoms of this form of impaction are the sudden- 
ness of the attack of colic which appears usually a few 



SO-CALLED COLICS OF THE HORSE 107 

hours after feeding. The pain is usually quite marked, the 
patient often assuming the attitude of the male horse when 
urinating. The peristalsis of the left side is suppressed and 
defecation ceases. Rectal examination usually gives negative 
results. In small horses, however, an examiner with a long 
arm may palpate the ileum at its union with the cecum, as a 
smooth, cylindrical, firm mass about the size of an arm 
located to the right of the spinal column and extending from 
above obliquely downward and backward toward the cecum. 
The size of the bowel and the absence of bands indicate that 
it is the small and Dot the large intestine. If the duodenum 
is impacted, it may be felt where it crosses the abdominal 
cavity from right to left just in front of the anterior root 
of the mesentery. It is attached to the roof of the cavity 
by a short mesentery. 

The pulse, temperature and conjunctiva are usually 
normal in the early stages (contrary to volvulus). 

Course. — Fresh cases if properly treated usually recover 
in three to six hours. Attacks lasting longer should be 
looked upon less favorably. The colic in these instances 
may continue for several days, the patient showing inter- 
mittent pain which occurs following feeding. The pulse 
becomes very rapid, the temperature feverish and the 
conjunctiva cyanotic. Death may also result from ensuing 
volvulus which is fatal in eight to twelve hours, intestinal 
sepsis or enteritis. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis in impaction of the small 
intestine is generally good. Not over 5 per cent, of the 
cases die. 

Treatment. — In the early stages a subcutaneous injection 
of arecalin (J gr.) which may be followed, if the results are 
not satisfactory, by a hypodermic of eserin (J gr.). Usually 
the administration of these drugs is followed in from thirty 
minutes to one hour by defecation and recovery in three 
to six hours. If the condition has been neglected or the action 
of arecalin and eserin unsatisfactory, aloes (§j) may be 
administered. Peristalsis may be further stimulated by 
infusions of water into the rectum, massage of the impacted 
bowel through the rectum, and moderate exercise. In pro- 



108 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

lcnged attacks lasting several days the patient should be 
muzzled to prevent feeding. 

If secondary distention of the stomach occur, treat as 
in gastric dilatation. It may be necessary to use the tube 
repeatedly to prevent rupture. 

Impaction of the Large Bowel. — Usually the impaction 
occurs in the cecum, pelvic flexure of the colon or at the 
termination of the right upper colon. Occasionally the 
rectum is impacted (pregnant mares). 

Impaction of the Cecum. — The causes of cecal impaction 
are practically the same as those of the small bowel. Usually 
when the cecum becomes impacted it is due to an organic 
change in the wall of the bowel which undergoes gradual 
dilatation with thickening. Eventually, the walls of the 
cecum lose their normal tonicity and paralysis develops 
predisposing to impactions. As a result intermittent attacks 
of chronic colic occur which generally lead to obstinate 
constipation and eventually to toxemia, enteritis, rupture 
and death. 

Diagnosis. — An accurate diagnosis of cecal impaction can 
be made only by rectal examination. In the right upper 
flank region one can determine a swelling of about the 
size of a human head. The enlargement is round, surface 
smooth and is not sensitive. Sometimes the bands of the 
cecum may be felt. The consistency will vary from quite 
soft, doughy (retaining finger imprints) to firm or hard. The 
fixed position of the enlargement, its size and location in the 
upper right region of the flank make the diagnosis not 
difficult. Error would be possible only in case there was 
impaction with displacement of the left lower colon, the 
bowel extending from the left to the right side of the 
abdominal cavity. The impacted left lower colon, however, 
usually occupies the right lower region of the flank and 
hugs rather closely the median line. The shape of the 
impacted mass is, furthermore, elongated and, finally, the 
base of the cecum can be felt in situ. 

Prognosis. — In early cases proper treatment usually pro- 
duces healing. However, cecal impaction in the nature of 
things tends to become chronic, the patient suffering from 



SO-CALLED COLICS OF THE HORSE 109 

time to time with periodical attacks of pain the condition 
finally leading to rupture and death. 

Treatment. — Arecalin (i gr.) combined with aloes (5j) is 
most effective. In prolonged attacks this treatment may 
be repeated. As an auxiliary the use of rectal infusions, 
massage (via rectum) and light exercise are helpful. In 
case the cecum bloats the trocar may be used. 

Impactions of the Colon. — Impactions of the colon 
usually occur either (a) in the left layers including the 
pelvic flexure or (b) in the terminal portion of the right 
upper colon. 

(a) Impaction of the left layer of the colon. When the 
left lower layer is impacted, on rectal examination may be 
felt a cylindrical mass usually just in front of the pelvic 
inlet or more rarely protruding into the pelvic cavity. The 
left lower layer is distinguished by its bands and pockets, 
the left upper layer by the absence of bands, its caliber, and 
direction in practically a straight line forward. The greater 
diameter and straight direction of the left upper colon 
differentiates it from the smaller, tortuous loops of small 
bowel. 

(b) Impaction of the right upper colon. The impacted 
mass is imprisoned in the " stomach-like" dilatation of this 
bowel, beginning at the funnel-shaped termination and 
extending forward and including the widest diameter of the 
bowel. Except in small horses the results of rectal examina- 
tions are almost negative. When the impaction may be 
felt it is distinguished by its location anterior to the cecum, 
slightly to the right of the median line. The mass is some- 
what round, firm, often covered by the root of the mesentery, 
and tends to move synchronous with respirations. 

In case the result of the rectal examination is negative, 
it would be impossible to distinguish between impaction of 
the right upper colon and that of the small bowel. In the 
last stages, if quantities of gas accumulate in the left layers 
of the colon the condition may be assumed; if, on the other 
hand, the gaseous distention is confined to the small bowel 
an impaction of this is probable. The general condition 
of the patient in impaction of the colon remains for quite a 



110 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

time good. The pulse and conjunctiva usually are about 
normal. Obviously when enteritis, septic intoxication or 
rupture occur the general condition becomes bad. 

Impaction Complicated with Abnormal Displacement. — 
Forms. — The following abnormal displacements of the bowel 
have been noted: Torsion of the large bowel (colon and 
cecum), volvulus of the small bowel, intussusception of the 
small bowel, incarceration of the bowel (inguinal canal, 
epiploic foramen, rents in the diaphragm, omentum, mesen- 
tery, etc.), and strangulation of the intestines from tumors. 

All of these pathological displacements lead to a sudden 
occlusion of the bowel and fatal colic. They constitute 
about 5 per cent, of all colic cases. Of great practical impor- 
tance are: 

(a) Displacement of large bowel. 

(b) Displacement of small bowel. 
Displacement of Large Bowel. — Most commonly this 

consists in a rotation (torsion) of the left colons around 
their long axes. On account of their free position in the 
abdominal cavity, contrary to the colons on the right side, 
a certain predisposition to abnormal displacement is present. 

Etiology. — The exciting causes are usually primary im- 
pactions behind the point of torsion. Therefore an impac- 
tion of the upper may lead to torsion of the lower colons, 
or an impaction of the lower to torsion of the upper colons. 
Impaction may be determined in at least 80 per cent, of all 
cases of displacement of the large bowel. Impaction induces 
in the bowel which is in front of it a violent antiperistaltic 
movement whereby secondarily a torsion follows. In other 
instances paralysis of the bowels due to embolism is the 
cause. Very rarely rolling in horses suffering from colic 
may lead to displacement. 

Diagnosis. — A correct diagnosis can be arrived at only 
through rectal examination. Very important in this regard 
is the course of the bands of the left lower colon. In place 
of their normal straight course the bands will be found 
bent spirally to the right or to the left. The twist is always 
opposite to the direction of the bands. For instance, the 
common twist of the left layers of the colon is to the right; 



SO-CALLED COLICS OF THE HORSE 111 

the bands are twisted spirally toward the left in this con- 
dition. Besides the result obtained from rectal examination 
it will be noted that the general condition of the patient is 
rapidly becoming serious which is usually indicated in one 
or two hours by the change in the pulse, peristalsis, tempera- 
ture and conjunctiva. There is, further, profuse sweating, 
great prostration, collapse, etc. 

Prognosis. — If the torsion is not soon removed death will 
result in six to twelve hours. 

Displacement of the Small Bowel (Volvulus). — 
Etiology. — Usually a primary impaction of a part of the 
bowel behind the volvulus is the cause of change in position 
The impaction may be either in the small or large bowel. 
Volvulus of the jejunum is commonly produced by impaction 
of the ileum (stenosis). As in the case of the large bowel 
a violent antiperistaltic movement of the bowel lying in 
front of the impaction favors torsion. 

Diagnosis. — Contrary to torsion of the large bowel vol- 
vulus can rarely be determined per rectum. A diagnosis 
is usually only possible by way of exclusion and is as such 
a probable one. If on rectal exploration no change can be 
found in the layers of the large intestine and the condition 
of the patient is rapidly growing bad, the probability of a 
volvulus is great. In some cases the bloating of the small 
intestine, which may be determined per rectum, point to 
volvulus. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is bad. Death usually results 
in eight to twelve hours. 

Treatment. — Treatment, as a rule, is without avail. 
Attempts to relieve the animal by a laparotomy have not 
proven to be feasible. 

Embolic Colic. — Definition. — By the term embolic or 
thrombo-embolic colic we understand intestinal pain from 
a disorder of the intestines due to the presence of a worm 
aneurysm in the anterior mesenteric artery. The cause of the 
worm aneurysm is the larva of the Strongylus armatus, 
the armed palisade-worm. The adult worm lives in the 
large bowel and the eggs are discharged with the feces. In 
the soil or stable floor the larvae are hatched and are taken 



112 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

up by healthy horses (colts) with the bedding or grass of the 
pasture and with the drinking water. From the bowel the 
larvae pass into the veins of the mucous membrane of the 
intestines, reach the right heart and, after passing through 
the lungs, the arterial circulation. According to some 
authorities they wander direct from the intestines between 
the leaves of the mesentery to the anterior mesenteric trunk. 
There are found principally in this trunk or its principal 
branch, the ileocolic artery. By irritating the inner 
wall of the artery they produce a chronic endarteritis. The 
results of the inflammation of the artery are: thrombosis, 
dilatation and calcification of the arterial wall (aneurysm). 

Notwithstanding that nearly all horses (about 90 per cent.) 
suffer from this aneurysm, embolic colic occurs in only about 
5 per cent. 

Pathogeneses. — The worm aneurysm of the anterior 
mesenteric artery produces disorder of the bowel in three 
different ways: (a) detached fragments (embolic) of the 
thrombus may reach the peripheral intestinal arteries, (b) 
The thrombus itself may become prolongated into branches 
of the artery, (c) The thrombus may in rare instances 
completely obstruct the lumen of the mesenteric trunk. 
In all three of these cases, depending upon whether or not 
the collateral circulation suffices, there results anemia, 
hemorrhagic infarction, and ultimately a necrosis of the 
mucosa of the bowel. On necropsy, therefore, we find 
principally the symptoms of a hemorrhagic inflammation 
of the bowels with necrosis and at the same time occlusion 
or thrombosis of the afferent and peripheral arterial branches. 

Symptoms. — The attack of colic usually begins suddenly, 
mostly during work. In mild cases the attack resembles 
somewhat spasmodic colic in that the pain is intermittent. 
On rectal examination everything seems intact provided there 
is no displacement secondary to the thrombosis; or we may 
be able to feel fremitis over the region of the anterior mesen- 
teric artery. In many instances the thrombus can be 
palpated per rectum. In the severe type bloating is an 
ordinary symptom. This form of colic tends to hang on 
with periods of remission for one or two weeks, although it 



SO-CALLED COLICS OF THE HORSE 113 

usually lasts but a few hours. It is frequently attended by 
fever and sometimes the stools are blood-stained. It is very 
apt to lead to enteritis, rupture of the stomach or bowel, 
septic intoxication or peritonitis. Embolic colic is a frequent 
cause of impaction especially impaction, complicated with 
displacement. 

Diagnosis. — In the living horse the diagnosis of embolic 
colic is always a probable one. It may be suspected when 
without apparent cause repeated attacks of colic occur and 
more especially if the feces contain blood. 

Treatment. — The treatment is the same as in simple 
impaction. Atoxyl (§iij) of a 3 per cent, solution given 
intravenously are said to eradicate the strongylus. 

Spasmodic Colic. — Definition. — By spasmodic colic we 
understand a rather severe attack of abdominal pain due to 
spasmodic contractions of the bowel, probably superinduced 
by intestinal catarrh. It is characterized clinically, in contra- 
distinction to impaction colic, by diarrhea, rapid course, 
intermittent pain and favorable termination. 

Treatment. — This form of colic should be treated with 
drugs which allay pain such as morphin (gr. iij-vj), chloral 
(§j). Arecalin, and especially eserin and barium chlorid, 
are contra-indicated. Warm applications to the belly are 
valuable. 

Worm Colic. — Intestinal Parasites. — The intestinal para- 
sites of the horse (spool-worms, tapeworms, palisade-worms), 
notwithstanding their frequency, rarely produce colic. How- 
ever, if present in large numbers they may (1) obstruct the . 
bowel, producing simple impaction, (2) mechanically irritate 
the mucous membrane, inducing enteritis or (3) by emigrat- 
ing into the abdominal cavity lead to peritonitis. In this 
connection the following parasites are important: 

Ascaris megalocephala, the spool- worm of the horse. Pro- 
duces obstruction, perforation of the bowel at the attachment 
of the mesentery, worm cysts and peritonitis. 

Taenia plicata, perfolia and mamillana, the tapeworms of 
the horse. Produce obstruction and perforation. 

Strongylus armatus and tetracanthus, the adult palisade- 
worms of the horse. They produce hemorrhagic enteritis. 
8 • 



114 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

Oxyuris curvula, the whip-worm of the horse, which 
produces proctitis. 

The larvae of Gastrophilus equi and pecorum rarely produce 
colic. In exceptional cases in colts they may induce traumatic 
gastritis or, by perforating the stomach wall, peritonitis. 

Treatment. — Through the use of purges alone intestinal 
worms cannot always be removed. 1 The most valuable 
agent for their removal in horses is tartar emetic (3ij to 
§ss) daily; given in drinking water two or three times. 
Besides arecanut (5hj), arsenic (gr. xv-xxx in form of 
boli), santonin (3 iiss) and turpentine oil (5iss-§iij) may be 
used. For gastrus larvae in the stomach bisulphide of carbon 
(3 iiss) given at night in capsules, four capsules given one 
hour apart. Follow with linseed oil (Oj). 

Flatulent Colic. — In some cases of simple impaction or in 
impaction complicated with displacement an abnormal 
fermentation of the bowel contents results. The gas (CO2, 
CH 4 , H, air) formed leads to a distention of the abdominal 
wall. It is more rarely due to u wind sucking." 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are those of simple or compli- 
cated impaction with great distention of the abdominal wall, 
and from compression of the diaphragm, severe dyspnea. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in using the trocar 
either through the side (cecum) or more rarely through the 
rectum. If the stomach is bloated the stomach- tube should 
be used. 

GASTRO-INTESTINAL CATARRH OF THE OX. 

Indigestion of Cattle. 

Definition. — Gastro-intestinal catarrh of the ox is an inflam- 
mation of the mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels. 
As the superficial layers of the mucosa of the rumen are 
provided with a horny epithelium and the organ is probably 
glandless, it offers remarkable resistance to the causes of 
inflammation. Most of the disturbances of the rumen are 



1 According to Udall and Albrecht aloes alone is an efficient agent to 
expel intestinal worms in horses. 



GASTRO-INTESTINAL CATARRH OF THE OX 115 

therefore functional. In the other compartments of the 
stomach, especially the abomasum, this is less true and in 
them catarrh is readily noted on necropsy. Obviously when 
the function of the rumen is impaired the other compart- 
ments must suffer, and vice versa catarrhs of the reticulum, 
omasum or abomasum will affect the functions of the rumen. 

Occurrence. — Gastro-intestinal catarrh is one of the most 
common non-infectious diseases of cattle, particularly 
stable-fed animals. Those on pasture are by no means 
exempt, especially during periods of drought, extreme rain 
or when the water supply is insufficient or bad. 

Etiology. — The most potent causes of gastro-intestinal 
catarrh are foods and feeding. Foods which are too woody 
(chaff, dried coarse grasses, shrubs, underbrush, tree tops), 
improperly harvested forage (cut too green, fermenting clover, 
over-ripe hay, etc.), spoiled food (mouldy meal, decayed 
vegetables), otherwise damaged food (frozen grass or silage, 
frosted beets), and finally feeding kitchen offal in the form 
of swill, etc. 

The injudicious feeding of good food can produce gastro- 
intestinal catarrh as, for instance, overfeeding or the sudden 
change from a well-balanced to a very narrow ration. With- 
holding roughage is also a cause. Allowing a full drink of 
cold water on a full stomach is harmful in this regard. Cattle 
may overload the stomach by getting loose and gaining access 
to the grain bins or fields of growing grain. 

Foreign bodies (nails, screws, pieces of tin, sand, hair 
balls, stones) so common in the reticulum are causes. Patho- 
logical conditions of the gullet (compression from enlarged 
mediastinal lymph glands, diverticuli), stomach (adhesions, 
abscess, actinomycomas, sarcomas, lymphomas in wall of 
rumen and bowels, "nodule disease," Johne's disease, 
tuberculosis, tumors). Psychic influences (removing young 
calf, strange environment) in nervous cattle may produce 
temporary digestive disturbances. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of gastro-intestinal catarrh 
are: 

Gastric. — Suppressed rumination; the cud not being chewed 
at all or with little vigor. Impaired appetite; often no food 



1.16 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

being taken or only in small quantities. Quite often foamy 
saliva appears at the commissures of the mouth. The 
muzzle usually becomes dry and the nostril openings are not 
cleaned by the tongue. Eructations of gas from the gullet 
(belching) is a common symptom. Occasionally a regurgita- 
tion (not true vomiting) of rumen contents through the 
mouth is noted. The hollow of the left flank is distended 
with gas, the paunch movements either cease or are very 
feeble and on palpation (over flank or through rectum) the 
food in the rumen feels firmer and retains finger imprints 
longer than in health. In some cases palpation of the left 
flank distresses the patient. 

Intestinal. — Occasionally colicy pains are manifested by the 
animal switching its tail and kicking against the abdomen 
with its hind limbs. Rolling, as in the horse, is rarely ob- 
served. The bowels are generally constipated, the feces black, 
hard and dry, sometimes covered with blood-stained mucus 
and passed in the form of fist-sized balls. If the patient has 
been fed on very succulent food (beets, beet tops) there may 
be diarrhea. In chronic cases the constipation may be 
interrupted by diarrhea, the feces having a sour, fetid odor 
and occasionally admixed with mucus, shreds of fibrin and 
blood. Peristalsis is lively when diarrhea is present, sup- 
pressed during constipation. 

General. — In mild, acute cases there is little general 
disturbance beyond a certain degree of languor or restlessness. 
When the indigestion persists for several days the patient 
may be distressed, standing with all four feet drawn together, 
its head forced into a corner or against the stanchion, the 
teeth are gnashed frequently, the back is arched, the muzzle 
is dry and the eyes retracted. Fever is present, beginning 
about the third day. The temperature is rarely high (104.5° 
F.). The pulse becomes rapid and weak. If bloating or 
great impaction of the rumen are present, dyspnea exists. In 
chronic cases the general condition grows continuously worse, 
the patient becoming anemic, emaciated, even cachectic and 
eventually dies of inanition. 

Diagnosis. — The disease should be distinguished from acute 
bloat (marked distention, dyspnea, sudden appearance, short 



GASTRO-INTESTlNAL CAT ARM OF THE OX 117 

duration), traumatic indigestion (pain over region of dia- 
phragm, evidence of peritonitis, heart symptoms), and such 
other diseases to which catarrh of the stomach and bowel 
is secondary (Johne's disease, tuberculosis, tumors, adhesions, 
chronic metritis, pyelonephritis, rabies). 

Course.-— Mild acute attacks usually last only three or 
four days. More severe cases persist for one or two weeks, 
recovery following a copious discharge of feces. Or death 
from gastric enteritis may ensue. Chronic cases hang on, as 
a rule, for several weeks. There may be exacerbations and 
remissions but generally the disease makes persistent progress 
toward a fatal termination. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis depends upon the possibility 
of removing the cause and the severity of the case. If the 
rumen is filled with indigestible food which is solidly impacted 
or if serious inflammation of the walls of the digestive tract 
has developed, the prognosis is grave. While acute cases, 
provided gastro-enteritis does not set in, usually recover, 
chronic cases usually die. 

Treatment. — The task confronting the practitioner is to : 

1. Promote the movements of the paunch and stimulate 
rumination. 

2. To arrest the fermentation of the stagnant food masses. 

3. To relieve the resulting impaction of the omasum and 
the constipation of the bowels. 

Hygienic. — Food should be withheld or restricted (muzzle) 
for a few days in acute cases. Kneading the walls of the 
abdomen five to ten minutes every three hours or three times 
daily is helpful. Keep salt and plenty of water accessible. 
If food is given it should be easily digestable and laxative 
(fresh grass, bran gruels, fine hay, root crops). 

Medicinal. — To stimulate paunch movements and to 
relieve constipation laxative drugs are indicated. The rule 
should be to employ the milder drugs of this sort first; at 
any rate, drastic purges should be avoided. As physics, 
oil and salts do little good in obstinate cases. In mild attacks 
Glauber salts (5 xxiv) and raw linseed oil (Oiss) are effective. 
More active is castor oil (5 xxiv) in equal volume of warm 
water. Ether (§ij) may be added to the mixture. The 



118 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

tartrate of eseridrin is recommended (fy — Eseridrini 1 gr. 
iij, acid, tartar gr. iss, aqu. dest. 3vj. M. D. S. Subcuta- 
neously). The sulphate of veratrin (1 to 50 in water — dose 
5ij per orem), or barium chlorid (5ij per orem). Impaction 
of the paunch may be relieved by direct infusions into the 
organ through a trocar which has been inserted in the hollow 
of the flank. The water should be tepid and may contain 
creolin. Several gallons may be allowed to flow in at a time 
and the treatment repeated daily. By placing a rail, held 
at each end by a person, under the abdominal wall, and 
working it up and down, the contents of the rumen may be 
readily mixed with the water infusion. In case this does not 
afford relief, rumenotomy should be performed. 

To arrest gastric fermentation and act as a tonic hydro- 
chloric acid may be given (3v diluted in water 1 to 250) to 
which pepsin (jjiiss) may be added. Creolin (§j) may be 
used to arrest fermentation. 

The appetite may be stimulated, once the patient begins 
to eat, by bitter aromatic herbs (]$ — Calamus, gentian, 
peppermint, caraway aa 5 j. M. D. S. Tablespoonful three 
times daily). 

The animal should be brought to full feed gradually. 
Usually one should wait until rumination reappears and begin 
with one-fourth to one-half rations. The drinking water 
should not be too cold. 

GASTRO-INTESTINAL CATARRH OF SUCKLINGS. 

Scours of Sucklings. Sporadic Dysentery. 

Definition. — A catarrh of the mucosa of the stomach and 
bowels of calves, lambs, or foals. Clinically, it is a diarrhea 
usually occurring in the first few days (two to ten) after birth. 

Occurrence. — A very common disease among sucklings, 
especially those which are "raised by hand," or where the 
young animal is permitted to suck its dam only at long 
intervals. 

Etiology. — The cause of gastro-intestinal catarrh is un- 
doubtedly bacterial. Probably the Bacillus coli communis is 

1 Very expensive! Arecalin is a good substitute. 



GASTRO-INTESTINAL CATARRH OF SUCKLINGS 119 

an important factor. While this germ is regularly present in 
the bowels of sucklings, and usually does no harm, once the 
resistance of its host is lowered by error of diet, exposure, 
etc., it can become pathogenic. Other intestinal bacteria 
may assume a similar role. Predisposing causes are: (a) 
weaning too early; (6) feeding boiled milk (destroys ferments 
in milk which aid digestion), or substitutes (flour, linseed, 
cotton seed) for milk; (c) feeding spoiled, contaminated (sour, 
putrid) milk out of filthy vessels; (d) overfeeding, allowing 
the hungry suckling to gorge itself with milk after too long 
a period of fasting, as in the case with foals of working mares ; 
(e) sucking the diseased udder (various forms of mastitis); 
(/) the eating of solid foods by the newborn animal, which it 
is unable to digest, such as hay, straw, etc.; (g) preventing 
the suckling from obtaining the colostrum, which removes the 
meconium from the bowel ; (h) refrigeration (cold, damp stable) . 

Symptoms. — The first symptom is usually refusal to suck 
or, if weaned, to drink the milk offered. The little patient 
is languid, depressed. Colicky symptoms are not rare. There 
is often bloating. The most marked symptom is diarrhea. 
The feces are thin, yellowish or dirty white in color, often 
foamy, of pungent, sour odor and voided with tenesmus and 
considerable force. Sometimes they are flocculent (like 
buttermilk). They are usually sticky and adherent to the 
anus, tail, buttocks, etc., which regions they excoriate. As 
the disease progresses the patient becomes weak and anemic, 
and remains lying most of the time. The eyeballs retract, 
the skin feels cool, moist, and sticky, and a most disagreeable 
odor is emitted from the body. In fatal cases toward the 
end the periphery of the body grows cold, the anal sphincter 
relaxed, and incontinence of feces follows. Death may occur 
under convulsions. 

Diagnosis. — Gastro-intestinal catarrh may be confused with 
infectious dysentery of newborn animals. This latter dis- 
ease, however, usually appears earlier (may be born with it) , 
runs a much more rapid course, and is very fatal (80 per cent, 
mortality). 

Course and Prognosis. — The course is generally favorable. 
Often, even after several days' illness, the diarrhea suddenly 



120 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

ceases, the appetite returns, and recovery is rapid. In grave 
cases the diarrhea may persist for weeks and the disease 
finally lead to death through catarrhal pneumonia. The 
younger the animal at the time of attack, the less favorable 
the prognosis. 

Treatment. — The diet should be restricted. The surround- 
ings, drinking vessels, etc., of the patient should be made 
clean and sterile. Hand-fed calves may be given pasteurized 
or formalin milk (1 to 25,000). Lime water added to the milk 
(3 j to the quart) is good. Boiled oatmeal is a valuable addi- 
tion to prevent bloating. The teats of the mother should be 
cleansed before the young are allowed to suck. Castor oil 
(Sj) is a valuable drug in the earlier stages, as it removes 
from the bowel the irritant contents. This may be followed 
by an intestinal disinfectant, such as salicylic acid (3 ss) some- 
times combined with tannin (5ss). Calomel (gr. xx) is a 
valuable drug for foals. To check the diarrhea, opium (5j) 
combined with tannin (5j) and whisky (§ij) given in a pint 
of warm water is efficient. A non-official preparation to check 
diarrhea is favorably spoken of. It is called "Mistura contra 
Diarrhceum," and has the following formula: ly — Tinct. 
opii, tinct. capsica, tinct. rhei, tinct. camphor, tinct. menthi 
aa 5j. M. D. S. Dose 5j-v. Hertwig's mixture is time 
honored. It is as follows: IJ — Opii gr. v, mag. carb. gr. xv, 
pulv. rhei 3j- M. D. S. Give in dilute alcohol giss. Dose 
tablespoonful twice daily. In calves bismuth (3 j) daily is good. 

On collapse subcutaneous doses of slightly alkaline salt 
solution (sodium chlorid 0.8 per cent., carbonate of sodium 
0.25 per cent.) are beneficial. Two quarts of the solution are 
injected under the skin of the neck. May be repeated in 
two to five hours. Rectal injections (same dose) are also 
recommendable. Oil of camphor subcutaneously is an ex- 
cellent stimulant. 

GASTRO-ENTERITIS. 

Inflammation of the Stomach and Bowels. 

Definition. — Gastro-enteritis is a symptom rather than a 
disease. It is a collective term covering all conditions which 



GASTRO-ENTERITIS 121 

directly or indirectly induce serious inflammations of the walls 
of the gastro-intestinal tract. From catarrh pathologically it 
varies only in degree; clinically it differs in the intensity of 
the symptoms and in the usual fatal termination. 

Occurrence. — Gastro-enteritis is common in all animals, 
occurring as either a primary or a secondary disorder. 

Forms. — From a pathological standpoint, croupous, diph- 
theritic, hemorrhagic, purulent, and phlegmonous forms are 
distinguished; from a topographic duodenitis, ileitis, typh- 
litis, colitis, and proctitis, depending upon the part of the 
bowel tract involved. From a clinical standpoint the fol- 
lowing forms occur : 

(a) simple, (b) croupous, (c) mycotic, (d) toxic. 

Simple Gastro-enteritis. — Etiology. — The causes of simple 
gastro-enteritis are in a general way the same as those of 
gastro-intestinal catarrh, but acting more intensively (see 
these). Food which is infected with bacteria or fungi or 
damaged by improper harvesting, frost, or containing poison- 
ous, irritant weeds; or good food injudiciously fed may 
therefore be predisposing factors. Overexertion, especially 
in very hot weather (horses at hard work, animals shipped 
long distances by rail, etc.), predisposes by greatly lowering 
resistance. Copious draughts of cold water, the body being 
hot, act in much the same way. 

The exciting causes of gastro-enteritis are evidently bac- 
terial. Probably no one species, however, is a constant 
cause. For some as yet unknown reason microorganisms 
which are regularly found in the digestive tract assume 
pathogenic activity once the resistance of the patient is 
reduced by dietary errors, overexertion, extreme heat, etc. 
It may thus be caused by some of the colon bacillus group. 
The Bacillus enteriditis, the necrosis bacillus and the pus 
bacteria seem to have been active in some cases. 

Animal parasites (Strongylus tetracanthus and Spiroptera 
megastoma in horses, and spiroptera strongylina in swine) 
are justly accused. 

In the ox a traumatic gastritis results from foreign bodies 
penetrating the walls of the stomach (see Traumatic Indiges- 
tion of the Ox) . 



122 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

Certain irritant drugs (aloes, cantharides) can cause toxic 
gastro-enteritis. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of simple gastro-enteritis are 
much more intensive than those of catarrh. While at times 
they develop gradually (follow catarrh), as a rule the onset is 
sudden (six to ten hours). The principal symptom is ab- 
dominal pain, which is continuous and generally severe. Ap- 
petite for food is entirely absent, although water may be 
taken at frequent intervals. In the early stages the bowels 
are constipated and peristalsis suppressed. Later diarrhea 
sets in; profuse quantities of miscolored, liquid feces are 
voided. Depending upon the form of inflammation, the feces 
may be admixed with blood (hemorrhagic enteritis), pus 
(abscess, purulent enteritis), fibrinous masses (fibrinous 
enteritis), necrotic tissue (diphtheritic enteritis), and mucus 
(proctitis) . The pulse reaches 70 to 90 (in horse) and becomes 
weak, small, and hard in character. The mucous membranes 
(eyelid) grow cyanotic (toxemia). The temperature is ele- 
vated (104° to 106° F.) and the type of fever intermittent in 
prolonged cases. Toward the end the temperature is subnormal. 

The general condition of the patient is that of great pros- 
tration. The body may be wet with sweat, the countenance 
relaxed, eyes staring, legs and ears cold, and gait staggering. 
The pulse becomes very weak, finally imperceptible, the 
mucous membranes grow cyanotic, and toward the end the 
patients are down in a soporous condition and may show 
convulsive movements of the legs. 

Diagnosis. — Simple gastro-enteritis is characterized by its 
sudden onset, rapid, fatal course, and the gravity of its 
symptoms of abdominal pain (colic), tender u tucked-up" 
abdomen, obstinate diarrhea, weak, wiry, frequent pulse, 
fever, and in the last stages the marked mental depression 
(sometimes excitement) and exhaustion. It might be con- 
fused with certain poisonings (toxic gastro-enteritis). The 
history of the case, number of animals affected, and the special 
symptoms which accompany each form of poisoning generally 
suffice for differentiation. In some cases, however, only the 
necropsy and chemical analysis of the ingesta will finally 
determine. 



GASTRO-ENTERITIS 123 

G astro-enteritis may be secondary to many disorders of 
the stomach and bowels, such as colic, helminthiasis (Strongy- 
lus armatus inducing thrombi and emboli), latent bowel 
ulcers following an attack of influenza or strangles, and more 
rarely may be due to enteroliths. In the above-cited in- 
stances usually the grave symptoms of severe inflammation 
are preceded by milder symptoms of digestive disorder. 

Course. — The course is usually rapid, death occurring in 
one to three days. Some patients die in a few hours after the 
symptoms appear. In isolated cases the disease may take a 
subacute course, and end in recovery in one to six weeks. 
In the ox an ordinary gastro-intestinal catarrh may after 
one to two weeks suddenly assume the form of a gastro- 
enteritis terminating fatally in forty-eight hours. Swine offer 
more resistance than do horses or cattle. 

Prognosis. — Unfavorable to bad. Fully 90 per cent, of the 
patients attacked die. 

Treatment. — No food should be given during the attack. 
In subacute cases gruels (flaxseed tea) may be allowed. The 
patient should be kept dry and warm by frequent skin rubs 
and warm, dry blankets. Careful nursing is essential. 

The medicinal treatment is symptomatic and of secondary 
importance. Mild laxatives may be used in the early stages 
(calomel in horses (3j) and hogs (gr. x), Glauber salts 'in 
cattle, castor oil). Strong, purges should be avoided (arecalin 
eserin, aloes). Slimy, mucilaginous agents (linseed tea, gum 
arabic) are indicated. They are usually used as vehicles for 
opium (powdered opium 3ij> tinct. opii 3ss-j) or belladonna 
(fluidextract 5j). Opium (3ij) combined with calomel (5ij), 
and powdered althea (5iij) in the form of an electuary is 
useful. Morphin (gr. iij-v) may be employed subcutaneously 
to lessen pain. 

Gastro-intestinal disinfectants, creolin (gj), therapogen 
(5ij-iv), sodium salicylate (3ij-iij) or " sulphocarbolates," 
i. e., sodii phenolsulphonas (5ijrSi)» zinci phenolsulphonas 
(3 j-iv) are often used, but are of little value except when the 
bowel is still intact. They may be even harmful in enteritis. 

In weakness and collapse, oil of camphor (§j) subcuta- 
neously, alcohol (Sij)i ether (S'ij), caffein (3ij) are indicated. 



124 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

Subcutaneous, intravenous, or rectal injections of sterile 
physiological salt solution to which 2 or 3 per cent, of grape- 
sugar has been added are reliable. The dose is H. & C. 
Oviij-x. Calves and colts Oiv, swine Oij. 

Croupous Enteritis (Membranous Enteritis). — Definition. — 
A subacute enteritis, usually of cattle, characterized patho- 
logically by the formation of a fibrinous pseudomembrane 
over the mucosa of the intestines. 

Occurrence. — The disorder is not common, although iso- 
lated cases are noted in cattle, especially young fat bulls and 
pregnant cows. Croupous enteritis has also been observed 
in horses and sheep. Cattle which are turned out to grass 
very early in the spring are most often attacked. 

Etiology. — The exciting cause, which is probably bacterial, 
is not known. Predisposing causes are refrigeration (cold, 
damp weather), irritant foods (mustard grass), and the 
ingestion of such drugs as strong camphor and canthar- 
ides. 

The seat of the lesions is generally in the small bowel, 
which on necropsy is lined by a grayish-yellow, rather 
friable, and easily removable mass under which the mucosa is 
catarrhally inflamed. 

Symptoms. — The early symptoms are those of gastro- 
intestinal catarrh (lost or impaired appetite, suppressed 
rumination, constipation, etc.). Some patients* show colic 
attacks (switching of tail, kicking hind legs against abdomen, 
or more rarely, rolling) . The symptoms of colic temporarily 
recede in twelve to fourteen hours. The patients show 
marked constipation, which usually last one or two weeks, 
at the end of which time the symptoms of abdominal pain 
return and diarrhea sets in. The liquid feces are brown in 
color, quite fetid, and eventually admixed with yellowish- 
gray croupous masses in the form of shreds, flakes, or some- 
times cylinders several feet in length. These tubular masses 
appear to the novice as portions of the intestines from which 
they are differentiated by their homogeneous structure, 
absence of mesentery, and bloodvessels. The cylinders often 
contain feces. 

In some mild cases the passage of croupous masses is not 



GASTRO-ENTERITIS 125 

preceded by symptoms of ill health beyond those of a mild 
indigestion. In other cases the prodromal symptoms are 
those of a severe gastro-enteritis, with great prostration, lost 
appetite, high fever, bowel hemorrhage, etc. 

Diagnosis. — A diagnosis is only possible when croupous 
membranes are found mixed with the feces. Shreds of the 
pseudomembranes may be mistaken for worms, prolapsed 
bowel, and portions of tendons accidentally swallowed. 

Course. — The course is usually one or two weeks, ending in 
recovery. Death occurs only in those cases in which symp- 
toms of severe gastro-enteritis appear or more rarely may be 
due to a complete obstruction of the bowel through the 
accumulation of fibrinous masses. 

Prognosis. — Usually good. Most cases recover. 

Treatment. — A large dose of salts (lbs. j-ij) is very useful. 
It may be followed by the administration of oils (raw linseed 
or castor oil Oj-ij). The after-treatment is the same as 
recommended in gastro-intestinal catarrh (diet, hygiene, 
stimulants, demulcents) . 

Mycotic Gastro-enteritis (Silage Poisoning. Forage Poison- 
ing. Mold Poisoning. Cryptogamic Poisoning. Falsely called 
" Cerebrospinal Meningitis.' ' Leukoencephalitis) . — Definition. 
— A form of gastro-enterosis leading to intoxication of the 
central nervous system, affecting herbivorous animals and 
due to the ingestion of food infested with certain moulds. 
The disorder is probably not a clinical entity. 

Occurrence. — Forage poisoning is very prevalent in the 
United States, appearing particularly among horses which 
have eaten corn silage, shredded fodder, corn stalks or corn 
cobs. The disorder may, however, occur in horses on pasture 
and which have not been fed corn. During hot, showery 
seasons the rank growth of grass, which mats together, forms 
an ideal medium for the development of various moulds 
which are pathogenic. In all probability water drunk from 
stagnent pools or shallow wells may also be a factor. Lands 
in low flat sections which are periodically flooded by streams 
flowing through them are especially dangerous in this regard. 
The disease is therefore quite prevalent along the river 
valleys of the United States, Cattle and sheep are also 



126 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

affected, but less frequently than are horses. Cattle are some- 
times infected while on orchard pastures, the ground strewn 
with " wind-fall" apples, which they eat. (Acidosis?) 

Etiology. — Moulds (mucor, aspergillus, penicillium), 
"blights" or smuts (Tilletia caries, ustilago), rusts (puccinia, 
uromyces), and yeasts (Polydesmus exitiosus), which infest 
forage, grain, and water at times, are pathogenic, and through 
their toxins produce in the animal body symptoms which fall, 
generally speaking, under two groups, viz., gastro-intestinal 
and nervous. In some outbreaks the nervous symptoms pre- 
dominate, in others the gastro-intestinal, depending probably 
on the kind of fungus taken into the body, the quantity of 
toxins produced, and the resistance of the individual. 

Symptoms.- — The symptoms of forage poisoning, as noted, 
may be grouped under two heads. (1) nervous, and (2) 
gastro-intestinal. Either may dominate or both may be 
combined in individual outbreaks. 

Nervous Group. — The most conspicuous symptoms are 
dysphagia from paralysis of the pharynx (inability to swallow, 
slobbering), paralysis of tongue, roaring, incoordination of 
body movements, staggering, shambling gait, weakness of 
hind parts; strikes fore feet in stepping over door sill, paraly- 
sis of tail), spasms of certain groups of muscles (twitching of 
face, lips, neck, shoulder) ; mental excitement, due to active 
cerebral congestion, causing rabiform symptoms (tendency to 
climb over any obstacles, biting and striking at attendants), 
mental depression (stupor, pushing head against wall) ; forced 
movements (traveling in a circle to right or left, individual 
patients always in one direction) ; amaurotic blindness (run- 
ning against objects), opisthotonos (head drawn backward), 
and finally profuse diaphoresis (heavy sweats along neck, 
shoulders, sometimes on one side only, may lead to loss of 
hair from maceration) . 

Gastro-intestinal Symptoms. — Colic (pawing, restlessness), 
constipation, often obstinate at first, or diarrhea, the feces 
liquid, sometimes blood-stained and fetid. There is occa- 
sionally slight bloating. The peristalsis is suppressed in 
constipation, lively in diarrhea. Tenesmus is occasionally 
observed. 



GASTRO-EXTERITIS 127 

General. — The conjunctiva shows petechia and icterus, the 
temperature in the early stages is up to 105° F., but soon 
drops to normal or subnormal, where it continues until death . 
The pulse is usually normal until the last stages, when it 
becomes rapid (occasionally slower), weak, and irregular. 
Dyspnea is generally present, but varies greatly in degree in 
different cases. Occasionally the respirations are subnormal. 
Polyuria is noted in some outbreaks, although retention of 
urine (paralysis of bladder) is more commonly observed. 
In the ox hematuria is often a symptom. Stomatitis and 
eczemas of skin (especially of head) have been noted in some 
outbreaks. 

Diagnosis. — Usually the diagnosis is not difficult. The 
number of animals affected, the history of food eaten (silage, 
shredded fodder), the nervous symptoms, rapid course, and 
the lack of apparent contagiousness are important factors. 
The disease might be confused with rabies, hemorrhagic 
septicemia, anthrax, and poisoning with drugs. In most 
outbreaks a combination of nervous and gastro-intestinal 
symptoms is suggestive. Differentiation in sporadic cases 
may be impossible without the aid of a necropsy and bacte- 
riological examination (rabies, anthrax, hemorrhagic septi- 
cemia) . 

Course. — The course is usually rapid. Individual patients 
die apoplectic, others in a few hours (seven to twelve), while 
many live one or two weeks and succumb. Patients which 
recover usually do so gradually, and such sequelae as lumbar 
weakness (wobbling gait) , hemiplegia (paralysis with atrophy 
of the muscles of one side of the body), blindness, epilepti- 
form seizures, etc., follow and persist for weeks or months. 
In occasional cases relapses occur during convalescence. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is doubtful to bad. The mor- 
tality varies from 25 to 90 per cent. 

Treatment. — Feeding infested forage or water should be 
immediately stopped. Pastured animals should be placed in 
stables and fed only uncontaminated foods. While the separa- 
tion of the healthy from the sick does not seem necessary, 
as an extra precaution it is recommended at least until our 
knowledge of the etiology is more definite. 



128 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

Medicinal. — The patients should be purged as soon as 
possible (aloin 3j~ij; salts, lbs. j-ij; arecalin, gr. j-ij, com- 
bined with strychnin gr. |). Large doses are usually 
required to move the bowels. Calomel (5 j-ij) is useful in 
horses. Owing to pharyngeal paralysis drenching is contra- 
indicated. Medicine should be given per orem in form of boli 
or electuaries. 

The purgative may be followed by a disinfectant, such as 
Pearson's creolin (Bj-ij), therapogen (5ij-iv), etc. In weak- 
ness and collapse give alcohol (§ij), ether (5ij)> caffein (3ij)> 
oil of camphor (5j) subcutaneously. For remainder of 
treatment see Simple Gastro-enteritis and Pharyngitis. 

When patient begins to improve and eat it should be placed 
on a light laxative diet. If able to stand in them, support 
with slings. 

Toxic Gastro-enteritis. — Toxic gastro-enteritis is an inflam- 
mation of the stomach and bowels due to the ingestion of 
poisons such as arsenic, mercury or any irritant drug or chem- 
ical. The symptoms and treatment of this form of gastro- 
enteritis are best given in books on toxicology which deal with 
poisons, their affects and antidotes. 

TRAUMATIC INDIGESTION OF THE OX. 

Traumatic Gastritis. 

Definition. — An inflammation of the stomach (rumen or 
reticulum) due to foreign bodies ingested with the food. 

Occurrence. — The disorder is common in cattle, especially 
dairy cows the property of the poorer, shiftless dairymen who 
permit nails, wire, needles, bolts, etc., to accumulate in the 
feed troughs or where the cattle feed. Cows with woman 
attendants frequently swallow darning needles, hair-pins, 
open safety-pins, etc., which come from the clothing and hair. 
On farms where the hay is baled for market, pieces of baling 
wire are commonly picked up by the cattle. Where the 
herd is grazing on flooded pastures or must drink from shallow 
sandy springs large quantities of silt and sand will be ingested. 

Cattle which have developed the habit of licking stable 
walls, partitions, etc., which may develop into the vice 



TRAUMATIC INDIGESTION OF THE OX 129 

known as "pica," take into the stomach considerable deleteri- 
ous foreign matter. 

Sometimes masses of hair (wool in sheep) are licked off other 
animals, or usually due to some itching skin lesion, from the 
patient itself. These accumulations form hair (or wool) 
balls in the stomach. 

Etiology. — The fact that an animal ruminates does away 
with the necessity of thorough mastication following pre- 
hension. The food is rolled in the mouth by the tongue, 
which is not very sensitive, mixed with saliva and swallowed 
without being chewed. Any foreign bodies in it, therefore, 
usually reach the stomach. While blunt foreign bodies usually 
do no harm unless large quantities of them accumulate, or if 
they block the natural openings of the stomach, sharp- 
pointed objects (needles, wire, nails) are frequently forced 
through the walls of the reticulum by the peristaltic move- 
ments, causing a traumatic gastritis. Usually the sharp- 
pointed object penetrates the diaphragm in the direction of 
the heart sac. Sometimes another route is taken, the wire, 
needle, etc., entering the lung, liver, spleen, uterus, or even 
aorta, where it sets up a suppurative inflammation leading to 
abscess formation or fatal hemorrhage. In some cases the 
abscesses may become encapsuled and the condition latent, 
or by way of metastasis, pyemia with multiple abscess for- 
mation in parenchymatous organs (lungs, liver) results. 

Symptoms. — In general the symptoms are those of an 
indigestion not traceable to errors in diet, which is period- 
ical (remissions and exacerbations), and often associated with 
rheumatic-like stiffness of the patient. Blunt foreign bodies 
produce symptoms of indigestion, which without a clear 
history of the case are extremely difficult to differentiate 
from chronic gastric catarrh. Accumulations of sand or silt 
in the rumen sometimes induce symptoms of loss of appetite, 
suppressed rumination, slobbering, stiffness of movement, 
and frequent groaning. In some cases the rumen feels ab- 
normally hard on palpation and the feces will be found to 
contain particles of sand. Occasionally the cattle will show 
toxic symptoms resembling those of parturient paresis. 

If the blunt foreign bodies block the natural openings of 
9 



130 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS 

the stomach sudden illness is produced. This is most com- 
monly seen in calves and lambs where hair, wool, or food 
balls are the offending objects. The symptoms are those of 
bloating, colic, restlessness, retching, dyspnea and occasion- 
ally epileptiform attacks. 

Sharp-pointed foreign bodies produce symptoms of sub- 
acute gastro-enteritis, which is intermittent in course. The 
patient shows usually symptoms of indigestion, bloating, 
stiffness and falls off in flesh. Pinching the patient in the 
centre of the back, percussion over the region of the attach- 
ment of the diaphragm, and palpation over the region of 
the reticulum produce pain. The gait of the animal is stiff, 
dyspnea appears on exercise, the temperature is somewhat 
elevated, and the patient usually considerably prostrated. 
Parturition, railway journeys, and placing the hind end of the 
animal higher than the front cause the symptoms to become 
worse. The usual treatment for indigestion is ineffective. 
As a rule, in time symptoms of traumatic pericarditis develop 
(see this). 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis depends largely upon the history 
of the case (no dietetic errors) , the intermittent and variable 
character of the symptoms, the stiffness of the patient, and 
the result of percussion and palpation over the region of the 
diaphragm and reticulum. It has been suggested that drugs 
which stimulate gastric movements be used to aid in diag- 
nosis. For instance, 1- to 2-grain doses of arecalin or 1 -grain 
doses of sulphate of veratrin given subcutaneously will cause 
in cases of traumatic indigestion contractions of the stomach 
with which are associated great restlessness, groaning, and a 
general intensification of the symptoms, the condition of the 
animal becoming worse. In ordinary indigestion, on the 
other hand, the administration of such drugs will tend to 
improve the condition of the patient. There are, however, a 
great many exceptions to this rule. In some cases a diagnosis 
can only be made on necropsy. 

Traumatic indigestion may be confused with chronic 
gastro-intestinal catarrh, bloating, tuberculosis of the medi- 
astinal lymph glands, pneumonia, or pleuritis. The differen- 
tiation is aided by the history of the case, the specific symp- 



TRAUMATIC INDIGESTION OF THE OX 131 

toms of traumatic indigestion (stiffness, intermittency) , and 
in tuberculosis through the tuberculin test. 

Course. — The course of the disorder produced by foreign 
bodies is generally chronic, lasting for weeks or months. 
Occasionally, due to the fact that a blunt foreign body ob- 
structs a natural opening or a sharp one begins to wander in 
the body, symptoms such as described are suddenly precipi- 
tated, which result in death in a short time; thus accumula- 
tions of sand in the rumen may cause death in two or three 
weeks, obstructing hair or wool balls in one or two days. In 
some instances the condition may heal spontaneously if the 
sharp foreign body works back into the stomach or in case it 
perforates the wall of the abdomen, producing an abscess 
and subsequently a fistula, through which it makes its escape 
into the outside world. These terminations, however, are 
comparatively rare. In practice most of the patients which 
develop clinical symptoms either die of traumatic heart dis- 
ease or pyemia. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is usually bad. Most cases die 
with pyemia or heart disease. 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment is of little value, although 
until a diagnosis is established it is recommended to treat as 
in gastro-intestinal catarrh. In a few instances surgical inter- 
ference has been successful. Rumenotomy may be per- 
formed and the foreign body removed, provided, of course, 
it has not completely penetrated the wall of the reticulum. 
Another method is to cast and place the patient on its back. 
The operator stands with one foot on a chair and the other 
on the body of the patient over the region of the ensiform 
cartilage. By pressing the abdominal wall in this, region 
downward with his foot seven to ten times it is claimed the 
foreign body will be made to slip back into the reticulum. 
However, it would be just as liable to penetrate in some other 
direction, injuring new organs. Its use is therefore not 
unattended with danger. 

As a general proposition the immediate slaughter of the 
patient is recommended. From a prophylactic standpoint, 
removing foreign bodies from the mangers, keeping cattle 
away from where hay has been baled, etc., are important, 



CHAPTER IV. 

ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE STOMACH. 
HELMINTHIASIS. 

GASTROPHILUS. BOTS. 

Varieties. — The larvse of bot flies occur in the stomach 
and bowel of the horse. The following varieties have been 
described: (a) Gastrophilus equi, which is usually found 
in the esophageal portion of the stomach, (b) Gastrophilus 
pecorum, found in the stomach, duodenum and rectum 
(Hungarian and Russian horses), (c) Gastrophilus hemor- 
rhoidalis, found in the pyloric portion of the stomach, 
duodenum, and rectum, (d) Gastrophilus nasalis, found 
in the pyloric portion of the stomach and duodenum. 

Life History. — The female botfly, which is common in 
summer, flying over the pasture fields and roads, deposits 
her eggs on the skin of the horse, especially on the hairs of 
the front legs, mane, neck, and about the nose and mouth. 
In from three to five days there issue from the eggs the 
larva?, which are licked off by the horse, reach the stomach, 
where they attach themselves to the mucous membrane, to 
remain until the following spring. In the months of May 
to July, and sometimes during the late summer, the bots 
leave the stomach, pass into the intestines and are voided 
with the feces. Either on the ground or in the manure they 
change into the chrysalis stage. In about one month the 
mature fly emerges, and after copulation the females deposit 
their eggs as described. 

The gastrus larva? are found in the stomach of all horses 
on pasture in small towns or where the botfly appears. 
Generally speaking, the larva? are harmless. Only in very 
exceptional cases do they cause illness through traumatic 
gastritis (symptoms of indigestion, intermittent attacks of 



ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 133 

colic and emaciation, especially in colts). In still rarer 
instances they produce perforation of the stomach and 
peritonitis. Once in a while bots induce inflammation of the 
rectum or even prolapsus recti, and still more rarely they may 
enter the brain, larynx, and other organs. 

Treatment. — The only agent of any value to eliminate 
the bot larva? is the disulphid of carbon. It should be 
administered on an empty stomach in capsules in doses of 
3iiss, four doses of which are given, with an hour between 
each. After twelve to twenty hours administer a good 
purgative. 

Prophylaxis. — Prevention consists in destroying the bot 
flies when observed about horses and by removing the eggs 
from the hairs once a week with a sharp knife. Cleaning 
out of the underbrush in woods, pastures, along the road- 
ways, and in the fields is contributory to this elimination. 

SPIROPTERA. 

These nematodes appear in the stomach of the horse and 
ass, where they form tumors in the pyloric portion, varying 
in size from a hickory nut to a hen's egg. When a tumor is 
incised the thin, thread-like worm appears. They sometimes 
induce gastritis and colic. 

Spiroptera strongylina occurs in the stomach of swine 
and sometimes induces an enzootic gastritis. 

ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES. 

Tapeworms (Cestodes). — Life Cycle. — In its development 
the tapeworm passes through two stages, viz.: the cyst or 
larval form and the adult tapeworm. Usually the cyst 
is found in one animal host and the tapeworm in another. 
The hosts are usually not even of the same species. As an 
example, the tapeworm Taenia ccenurus has for its host the 
dog, while the larval stage, the Ccenurus cerebralis, has for 
its host usually the sheep. The Taenia cucumerina, the 
common tapeworm of the dog in its cyst form, is harbored 
by the common dog flea (Pulex serraticeps) . 



134 ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE STOMACH 

The development of the tapeworm is as follows: The eggs 
with the segments of the adult worm which inhabits the 
intestines are voided with the feces and thus reach the out- 
side world. There they are taken up by a second host, in 
the stomach of which the embryo, often provided with hooks, 
is hatched. These embryos penetrate the bowel wall and 
mter the bloodvessels, and are carried to distant organs, 
such as the muscles, brain, lungs, etc., developing in these 
organs cysts. If organs containing such cysts are ingested 
by animals which would form the proper host there develops 
in the intestine a tapeworm. The tapeworm is provided with 
a head or scolex to which is attached a number of segments 
or colonies that, when ripe, contain the fertile egg of the 
tapeworm. 

Varieties. — Each of the domesticated animals has species 
of tapeworms peculiar to itself. 
Horse: 1. Taenia perfoliata. 

2. Taenia plicata. 

3. Taenia mamillana. 
Ox: 1. Taenia expansa. 

2. Taenia denticulata. 

3. Taenia alba. 
Sheep: 1. Taenia expansa. 

2. Taenia ovilla. 

3. Taenia alba. 

4. Taenia fimbriata. 

Symptoms. — Tapeworms, unless present in large number, 
rarely produce symptoms. For instance, over 50 per cent, 
of the dogs harbor tapeworms, particularly the Taenia cucum- 
erina. On the other hand, tapeworms sometimes cause 
chronic intestinal catarrh (diarrhea alternating with con- 
stipation, icterus, and eventually anemia). In horses colic 
may be caused by them. In sheep they induce chronic 
bowel catarrh, anemia, and often fatal cachexia. In rare 
instances a perforative peritonitis may be due to tapeworms. 

Diagnosis. — Taeniasis can be diagnosed positively only by an 
examination of the feces in which will be found the segments 
or eggs of the tapeworm. In sheep a diagnosis may be made 
by a necropsy. 



ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 135 

Treatment. — In horses the most valuable tapeworm agent 
is tartar emetic (5ss) daily for three or four days. Turpen- 
tine (5 j-ij) is a good tamiafuge. It should be given in milk 
or oil to prevent blistering the mouth or throat. 

In lambs picrate of potash (gr. ij-vj), kooso (gr. ij-iij) 
or male fern (5j) are recommended. Tseniafuges should 
be given on an empty stomach and followed in twelve to 
twenty hours by a good purge. Treatment is successful only 
when the head of the tapeworm is also removed. 

Prevention. — In dealing with an enzootic of tseniasis it is 
advisable to give the animals plenty of good, nutritive 
food and excellent care. Sometimes these alone are all that 
is necessary. Obviously, cysts and tapeworms should be 
destroyed as a preventive measure. 

Round-worms (Ascarides). — The ascarides or round- 
worms resemble earthworms somewhat in form. The life- 
cycle of these parasites has not yet been fully determined. 
Unlike the tapeworms, they do not seem to require an inter- 
mediate host. The transmission to susceptible animals 
occurs through the ingestion of fecal matter containing the 
eggs and not through drinking water. Milk, however, can 
become contaminated and therefore very young animals 
are infested. The development of the embryo from the egg 
is very rapid. For instance, the egg of the Ascaris megalo- 
cephala of the horse will develop a complete embyro in three 
days. The following are the varieties of ascarides: 
Horse: Ascaris megalocephala. 
Ox and Swine: Ascaris lumbricoides. 

Symptoms.— In most cases round-worms produce no 
symptoms. Occasionally, however, if large numbers of them 
are present in the intestine they will produce symptoms of 
chronic intestinal catarrh, obstruction of the bowel or more 
rarely hemorrhagic enteritis. A few exceptional cases of 
bowel perforation with fatal peritonitis have been due to 
round-worms. At times they may block up the bile ducts 
and produce icterus. Besides acting in a mechanical way it is 
very possible that round-worms eliminate a toxic substance 
which acts upon the nervous system, producing symptoms of 
epilepsy, tetanus or paralysis (anaphylaxis?). In calves an 



136 ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE STOMACH 

enzootic ascariasis has been observed leading to considerable 
losses from symptoms of chronic intestinal catarrh (diarrhea) . 
Peculiar to these cases is a penetrating ether-like odor of the 
breath of the sick patient. The meat has also a similar smell. 

Treatment. — In the horse tartar emetic (5 ss) may be given 
or Fowler's solution of arsenic (5j), or arsenic (gr. xv- 
xxx). Turpentine (gij) in oil (Oj), and bisulphid of carbon 
(5ij in oil Oj) are also recommended. 

Calves may be given tartar emetic (gr. xlv) dissolved in 
water (5v), one tablespoonful every three hours in milk. 
For swine areca nut (5 j-iv) with flour as an electuary is good. 

Prophylaxis. — To prevent reinfection it is recommended 
to burn the manure of the affected and thoroughly disinfect 
the stable. 

Palisade-worms in the Intestine. — Following are impor- 
tant worms of this group: 

Horse: Strongylus armatus and tetracanthus. 
Sheep: Strongylus contortus. 
Ox: Strongylus convolutus. 

Strongylus Armatus (Sclerostomum Equinum). — Strongylus 
armatus is the most common of the palisade-worms of the 
horse. Its life-cycle is not entirely understood. Three 
varieties have been described : (a) Sclerostomum bidentatum, 
(6) Sclerostomum edentatum and (c) Sclerostomum quad- 
ridentatum. 

Sclerostomum Bidentatum. — Sclerostomum biden- 
tatum is the cause of the common worm aneurysm found in 
90 per cent, of all horses in the trunk of the anterior mesen- 
teric artery. The mature worm lives in the large intestine 
of the horse. The eggs are voided with the feces where they 
hatch, producing the larval form. The larva? are taken up 
with contaminated food and bedding by healthy horses 
and reach the intestines. From the lumen of the intestines 
they pass probably into the veins of the mucous membrane 
and reach the liver through the portal circulation; or they 
may pass into the lungs through the right heart and from 
the lungs enter the general arterial circulation. In the 
trunk of the anterior mesenteric artery they form the worm 
aneurysm which is one of the causes of colic (embolic) in the 



ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 137 

horse. The emigration of the larvae from the aneurysm 
back to the intestine occurs in that they are carried by the 
arterial blood to the peripheral intestinal arteries. They 
then form embolic worm nodules in the bowel walls. Later 
the larvse perforate the mucous membrane, reenter the 
bowel and attain sexual maturity. 

Sclerostomum Edentatum. — This parasite is found 
in the large intestine in about one-half of the horses. The 
eggs are passed out with the feces. The embryos are taken 
up with the food and water and enter the digestive tract 
of healthy horses. They pass into the bowel walls and reach 
the subserosa of the parietal peritoneum, where they produce 
hemorrhages in the peritoneum. Occasionally in colts they 
cause anemia. Their presence frequently induces an ad- 
hesive peritonitis. Rarely the parasite is found free in the 
abdominal cavity or in the scrotum. From the subserosa 
the larvse wander between the leaves of the mesentery back 
to the large intestines, in the wall of which they become 
encysted. They later enter the lumen of the bowel and attain 
sexual maturity. 

Sclerostomum Quadridentatum. — Sclerostomum quadri- 
dentatum is very rare and does not seem to have a pathogenic 
action. 

Strong fltjs Tetr acanthus. — This palisade- worm lives 
in the mature state in the colon where often large numbers 
appear in colts. They produce a hemorrhage and even 
necrotic enteritis with colic and bloody diarrhea. In the 
feces large numbers of very small strongyli are found. 
Sometimes death results from bowel hemorrhage. The 
eggs pass out with the feces and from them rod-shaped 
embryos form which are ingested by horses with the food. 
In the intestines they bore into the mucous membrane of the 
colon and cecum and become encysted. There are frequently 
found as submucous nodules in the middle of which are the 
larvae surrounded by pus. Finally the larvae penetrate the 
capsule into the lumen of the bowel where they reach sexual 
maturity. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in the use of vermi- 
fuges as recommended for round- worms. Of late atoxyl 



138 ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE STOMACH 

(gr. v) given in repeated doses once daily has been recom- 
mended for colts. 

Prevention. — As a preventive measure filtering the drinking 
water is advisable. 

Strongylus Contortus. — This is commonly known as the 
twisted palisade-worm, and is the cause of the so-called 
stomach- worm plague of the sheep. The life-cycle of this 
parasite is not understood. Probably the embryos are taken 
up on the pastures or perhaps in the sheepfold. The stomach - 
worm plague which this parasite induces is a serious disease 
of lambs in the spring or during wet summers. The condition 
may become enzootic, causing great economic losses. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms in general are those of a 
chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh leading to emaciation, 
anemia, hydremia, and death. On postmortem the 
abomasum of the infested sheep will be found to contain a 
large number of the small, filiform, reddish parasites, 2 or 3 
cm. in length. As noted, picrate of potash (gr. ij-viij) is 
recommended. 

Strongylus Convolutus. — This parasite is found in young 
cattle and calves, also in sheep. It occurs in the abomasum, 
where, under the epithelial layer of the mucous membrane, 
it forms gray, pin-head to pea-sized nodules which contain 
the parasites. If present in large numbers they produce 
symptoms of gastric disturbance leading to diarrhea, emacia- 
tion, and cachectic hydremia. 

(Esophagostoma in the Intestines ( Nodule Disease) . — The 
larvse of the cesophagostomum frequently produce disease, 
especially among cattle and sheep. Inasmuch as the most 
characteristic lesion on necropsy is the nodule produced by 
the larvse, the name "nodule disease" has been given to this 
disorder. The following cesophagostomas occur in domesti- 
cated animals: 

(a) (Esophagostomum columbianum of the intestines 
(American sheep). 

(b) (Esophagostomum radiatum in the intestines. 

(c) (Esophagostomum venulosum of European sheep and 
goats. 

(d) (Esophagostomum dentatum of the intestines of swine. 



ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 139 

Life History. — The life history of the oesophagostomas, 
as far as is known, is as follows: The ova which are voided 
with the feces hatch outside of the body. When ingested 
by an animal during the late summer they pass from the 
lumen of the intestine into the walls, where they become 
encysted. They remain in the walls six or seven months 
undergoing in this time three successive changes. In the 
early spring the larvae pass back into the bowel lumen and 
attain full development. In midsummer the females lay 
their eggs. This applies to all cesophagostoma except the 
O. dentatum of swine, which is said to mature within the 
worm nodule in the wall of the intestine. 

Necropsy. — In sheep and cattle there appear along the 
course of the small intestine, and often of the cecum, nodules 
which vary in size from a pin-head to a shoe button or even 
larger. The nodules vary in color, the smaller being black 
or gray and the larger grayish -white. On incision they are 
found to consist of a thick capsule of connective tissue 
surrounding a greenish-colored, cheesy, or even purulent 
mass. The small nodules will be found to contain the larvae. 

Symptoms. — Sheep and cattle when feeding upon low-lying 
pastures, especially during the months of August and 
September, ingest the larvae. It is also possible that they may 
become infested in stables. As a rule, if only a few nodules 
are present no symptoms of disease are produced. On the 
other hand, if large numbers occur (as many as six thousand 
have been noted) symptoms of chronic intestinal catarrh, 
obstinate diarrhea, anemia, emaciation, and cachexia are 
noted. Nodule disease seems most fatal in pregnant ewes 
on dry feed during the early spring months. As half of the 
flock can die in two or three months of the invasion the 
disorder assumes economic importance. 

Diagnosis. — A positive diagnosis can be obtained only 
from a necropsy. An examination of the feces is of no value, 
since the ova have not yet been found. 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment is not successful. How- 
ever, feeding highly nutritious food, keeping the sheep in 
small flocks, and less crowding during the winter season, 
especially among pregnant ewes, are the principal indications 
to be followed. 



140 ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE STOMACH 

Echinorhynchus Gigas (Thorn-headed Worm). — Echinor- 
hynchus gigas is a long, round, white worm varying, depend- 
ing on sex, from 6 to 35 cm. in length, which inhabits the 
intestines of swine. The head of this parasite is armed with 
several rows of strong hooks. 

Life History. — This parasite lives in its larval form encysted 
in the abdominal cavity of the grub of the May bug. Even 
adult May bugs may contain them. Hogs which run on 
woodland pastures, old manure piles, or clover fields, where 
the May bugs abound, feed on the grub or the adult bugs. 
In the bowels of the hog the larvae attain maturity and 
fasten themselves by means of their hooks to the mucosa 
of the intestinal wall. In the small intestines the adult worm 
can produce local inflammation, sometimes even perforation 
with peritonitis. The patients show symptoms of colic by 
grunting, restlessness, snapping toward the abdomen, or 
even other animals. Occasionally in young pigs epileptiform 
convulsions are produced, which are generally fatal. 

Diagnosis. — A diagnosis can be made only by an examina- 
tion of the feces for the eggs of the parasite. When a number 
of pigs are sick with symptoms of colic, convulsions, etc., a 
necropsy will reveal the existence of the worm. 

Treatment. — Treatment is not very successful, as the 
worms are hard to dislodge. One of the best agents is oil of 
turpentine (3ij). 

Prevention. — Prevention consists in keeping swine out of 
woods pastures, manure piles, etc., and the destruction of 
the May bug and its grub. 

Oxyuris Curvula (Whip-worm). — This parasite is found 
living in the large intestine of the horse. Frequently, how- 
ever, it is found in the rectum, where it causes irritation and 
proctitis, inducing the patient to rub the root of the tail and 
buttocks. Quite often, as a result of the catarrhal inflam- 
mation of the rectum, a layer of white to yellowish dried 
exudate is found about the anus and perineum. 

Treatment.— The treatment consists in giving clysters of 
linseed oil or vinegar. Bichlorid of mercury, 1 to 2000 in 
small quantities (Oj), is also useful. Large doses have 
produced mercurialism. 



ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE INTESTINES 141 

Uncinariasis (Dochmiasis). — Uncinaria rarely affect cattle, 
although cases are reported from the States of Florida and 
Texas, where the disorder produced by them is known as 
''salt sick." 

Life History. — The ova which are found in the feces of 
infected animals develop into embryos within twenty-four 
hours under favorable conditions. In water and damp 
earth they undergo several changes, so that after about one 
month they are capable of further development in the bowel 
of a susceptible host. The adult worm varies from 3 to 8 cm. 
in length and its anterior end is bent in the form of a hook. 

Natural Infection. — The infection takes place among cattle 
by drinking water from stagnant pools containing the 
embryos or from infested low-lying pastures. Obviously, 
drought, lack of proper food and care, digestive disturbances, 
etc., which reduce the resistance of an animal, are contrib- 
uting causes. 

Symptoms. — In general the uncinaria produce symptoms of 
a gastro-intestinal catarrh leading to anemia, hydremia, and 
cachexia. One of the first symptoms noted is a morbid 
desire on the part of the patients to lick objects. The cattle 
become thin, show diarrhea, often alternating with con- 
stipation, and bloating. Symptoms of colic are not infre- 
quent. Later hydremia develops with edema of the region 
of the throat, hydrothorax, and ascites. The patients 
usually die of inanition. 

Diagnosis. — Diagnosis can be made by a microscopic 
examination of the feces for the ova. Johne's disease is 
distinguished from it by the character of the diarrhea, 
which is more watery than in uncinariasis and the presence 
of acid-fast bacilli in scrapings from the anterior portion 
of the rectum. 

Treatment. — Treatment is only fairly satisfactory. In- 
tensive feeding and better care keep up the strength and 
health of the patient, greatly assisting the cure. Medicinal 
treatment is the same as for round-worms. 

Prevention. — Keep cattle away from infected pastures, 
water only from running streams, wells, or good springs, 
sprinkle the infected manure with lime water, and thoroughly 
clean and disinfect the stable. 



CHAPTER V. 
DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 

JAUNDICE. ICTERUS. 

Definition. — Jaundice, or icterus, is a condition due to the 
deposit of bile pigment in the organs of the body, especially in 
the skin and mucous membranes. Jaundice is a symptom 
and not a disease, and may be due to a variety of conditions. 
From a pathological standpoint three forms of jaundice are 
distinguished: (a) catarrhal jaundice, (6) hepatogenous 
jaundice, and (c) toxic jaundice. 

From a clinical standpoint three types of jaundice are 
differentiable : (a) obstructive jaundice, (b) malignant 
jaundice, and (c) jaundice of the newborn. 

Obstructive Jaundice. — Definition. — Obstructive jaundice, 
sometimes called catarrhal icterus, is the commonest form 
in animals, especially dogs, and is usually associated with a 
gastro-intestinal catarrh which involves the duodenum, 
leading to a tumefaction of the mucosa of the bile ducts. 
As a result the bile cannot be properly eliminated; therefore 
some of it is resorbed by the blood. Obstruction by foreign 
bodies within the ducts (parasites, rarely gall-stones) may 
be a cause. Obviously, tumors, enlarged lymph glands, or 
even fecal accumulation, provided they press upon the 
ducts, can have the same effect. The icterus seen in influ- 
enza of the horse is probably the result of catarrh of the 
bile ducts, although it may be in part toxemic. 

Symptoms. — Obstructive jaundice usually begins with 
symptoms of digestive disturbances (gastro-intestinal 
catarrh). Later there develops a tinting of the mucous 
membranes, skin, and urine. The color ranges from a 
lemon yellow (catarrhal icterus) to a deep olive green in 
permanent obstruction (malignant icterus). In the urine 



J A UNDICE— ICTERUS 143 

the presence of bile pigment may be determined chemically 
(Gmelin's test). As no bile reaches the intestinal tract the 
feces are pale drab or slate colored, and usually very fetid. 
The general symptoms are those of languor, dulness, slow 
pulse, and subnormal temperature. In man the respirations 
may fall below normal and xanthopia, or yellow vision may 
occur. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis in this form of icterus is usually 
favorable. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists in regulating the diet 
(gastro-intestinal catarrh) and the administration of anti- 
catarrhal agents, such as Carlsbad salts. To relieve con- 
stipation, purgatives (aloes, calomel) are recommended. 
Pilocarpin (gr. iij), followed by potassium tartrate, is given. 

Malignant Jaundice (Icterus Gravis). — Definition. — This 
form of jaundice is marked by its malignancy, and character- 
ized anatomically by a destruction of the liver cells, with 
reduction in volume of the organ. 

Occurrence. — Malignant jaundice is a rare disease in 
animals. Occasionally cases are seen in the horse and 
sheep. 

Etiology. — The causes are net well understood. It has 
been known to follow phosphorus poisoning, feeding lupine, 
sour potato peelings, vetch straw, and hay from flooded 
meadows. In some cases it is probably due to a toxin 
eliminated during septicemia and gastro-enteritis. In man 
there seems to be a close association between the disease 
and pregnancy. 

Symptoms. — The principal symptom is a profound icterus, 
associated with which are weakness, coma, sinking of the 
temperature, hemorrhage of the skin and mucous membranes, 
and often a rapid, fatal course. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is bad. Death usually occurs 
in about one week. 

Treatment. — Treatment is unsatisfactory. Recommended 
are disinfectants, purgatives, and diuretics. 

Jaundice of the Newborn (Icterus Neonatorum). — Defini- 
tion. — This form of icterus, as the name indicates, occurs in 
animals just after birth. 



144 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

Occurrence. — It is more common in calves, although 
occasionally is met with in foals during the first few days 
after birth. 

Etiology. — It seems to have several different causes: 
constipation, which prevents the discharge of the meconium; 
stenosis of the gall ducts; increased secretion of bile in the 
first few days of life; reduced blood-pressure, and probably 
diseases of the umbilical veins. 

Symptoms. — Symptoms are those of a catarrhal icterus 
which in some instances is preceded by gastro-intestinal 
disturbances. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is bad, as the majority of cases 
soon die. Those animals which do recover usually do so 
when the digestive disturbance is relieved. 

Treatment. — Same as for catarrhal icterus. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. HEPATITIS. 

Definition. — By the term hepatitis we understand an inflam- 
mation of the liver. Depending upon the seat of the inflam- 
mation, i. e., whether in the liver cells or interstitial tissue, the 
ccurse and the anatomical character of the inflammation, 
three clinical forms may be distinguished: (a) parenchy- 
matous hepatitis, (6) chronic interstitial hepatitis, and (c) 
purulent hepatitis (abscess of the liver) . 

Acute Parenchymatous. — Definition. — This consists in an 
inflammation of the liver cells with cloudy swelling and 
fatty infiltration of the same. 

Etiology. — The disorder is almost always a secondary 
condition. Primary cases may be induced by numerous 
toxic substances, such as spoiled food, poisonous plants, 
phosphorus, or bacteria which are carried to the liver through 
the portal system, or occasionally through the umbilicus. 
In the latter case the hepatitis may be enzootic, as occurs 
in pigs and lambs. 

Hepatitis is secondary to many infectious diseases (septi- 
cemia, influenza). It may also be secondary to poisoning 
with phosphorus or arsenic. In some instances the cause is 



INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER—HEPATITIS 145 

parasitic (distoma, cysticercus, sclerostoma), which wander 
into the liver substance. 

Necropsy. — The liver is swollen (borders rounded), con- 
gested, spotted with dark red hemorrhages. The consistency 
is softer and more friable than normal. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of acute parenchymatous hep- 
atitis are usually very vague and masked by those of the 
primary disease, to which it is secondary. 

Diagnosis. — A diagnosis can rarely be made during life, 
except in the dog, where the symptoms are those of 
weakness, icterus and sensitiveness over the region of 
the liver. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists in the administration of 
salts, which mildly purge, and the use of intestinal disin- 
fectants. The diet should be regulated by excluding food 
rich in fats. 

Chronic Interstitial Hepatitis (Cirrhosis of the Liver). — 
Definition. — Cirrhosis of the liver consists of an inflammatory 
proliferation of connective tissue with atrophy of the liver 
cells. Two forms of cirrhosis may be distinguished, the 
hypertrophic and the atrophic. In the first form, due to 
cellular infiltration and the increase in connective tissue, 
the liver is increased in size, while in the latter form, due to a 
shrinkage of the connective tissue, a marked decrease in the 
size of the organ occurs. The consistency of the liver is very 
hard and firm and its surface very irregular (hobnail liver), 
or the surface may appear granular or lobed or there may 
be diffuse induration. 

Occurrence. — Chronic interstitial hepatitis, while usually 
sporadic, in some instances may assume an enzootic dis- 
tribution (Schweinburg disease, North Dakota bottom 
disease), causing considerable loss among cattle, sheep, 
and swine. 

Etiology. — The cause of interstitial hepatitis in animals is 
unknown. In all probability it may be toxic and due to 
plants of the senecio group (rag wort), or it may be infectious. 
In animals it is more often the result of animal parasitism 
(sclerostomiasis). Congestion of bile is a rare cause. Cir- 
rhosis of the liver is a symptom of distomatosis. 
10 



146 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of the disease do not usually 
attract attention until the later stages, and even then 
they are rather vague in animals. In general they consist 
in symptoms of chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh, with a 
tendency to icterus. Impaired or capricious appetite, 
periodical attacks of colic, especially after feeding roughage, 
symptoms of immobility (stupor, forced movements, vertigo), 
icteric or pale mucous membranes, loss of condition, hide- 
boundness, and eventually emaciation are the symptoms 
usually noted. In small animals, and in large ones if suffi- 
ciently emaciated, it is possible to percuss out an enlarged 
area of hepatic dulness (see larger works). In small animals 
ascites and anasarca appear toward the end. 

Course. — The course is chronic and extends over months 
and years. 

Treatment. — The treatment is usually of little value, 
although some observers report temporary improvement 
after using iodin preparations. 

Purulent Hepatitis (Abscess of the Liver). — Etiology. — Liver 
abscesses are not uncommon in calves and adult cattle, but 
are rare in horses. They may originate in the following 
ways: (a) Enterogenic infection due to pus organisms or the 
necrosis bacillus from an infection of the portal system from 
the bowel. (6) Embolic or pyemic abscesses, which are 
formed via metastasis in strangles or pyemia, (c) Infection 
through the umbilicus of newborn colts and calves, (d) 
Traumatic abscesses due to foreign bodies which penetrate 
the liver usually from the reticulum and more rarely from 
without, (e) Parasitic abscesses due to echinococci, distomes, 
and other animal parasites which have invaded the organ. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are very indefinite, and a 
diagnosis is rarely made during the life of the patient. 
Briefly they consist in fever, symptoms of indigestion, pain 
on palpation, and the presence of bile pigment in the urine. 

Course and Prognosis. — The course is chronic and the 
prognosis bad. 

Treatment. — Treatment in animals is of no avail. In rare 
instances opening the abscesses has been attempted, but 
with indifferent success. 



THE LIVER FLUKE DISEASE— DISTOMATOSIS 147 



THE LIVER FLUKE DISEASE. DISTOMATOSIS. 

Definition. — An inflammation of the liver and bile ducts due 
to the presence of trematode parasites of the genus fasciola. 

Occurrence. — The disease produced by these flukes is 
commonly known as "liver rot" and sometimes assumes an 
epizootic distribution, particularly among sheep, where it 
causes considerable loss. The disease is sometimes noted 
in cattle, but rarely attains in these animals economic 
importance. There are two forms of liver fluke in animals: 
(1) Distomum hepaticum (Fasciola hepatica) and (2) Distoma 
lanceolatum (Fasciola lanceolata). 

Natural History. — The eggs of Distomum hepaticum reach 
the outer world with the feces. On damp pastures and under 
the influence of summer heat the embryo is hatched in about 
one month. They then enter snails, in which in about 
four weeks they become converted into sporocysts, out of 
which there develop radise. From the radise pass out the 
cercarise. The cercarise swim about in water and attach 
themselves to blades of grass, in which they become enclosed 
by a sticky substance. The infestation of the animal occurs 
from eating the grass or forage or from the drinking water 
containing these encysted cercarise. It is possible for 
infestation to take place in the sheepfold either from green 
food and water or probably from dry food. After ingestion 
the parasites pass through the bile ducts, in which *they 
become sexually mature in from five to six weeks. From the 
gall ducts, in which they have produced chronic inflammation 
and dilatation, they pass into the liver substance. Here they 
induce hemorrhagic foci, multiple abscesses, and ultimately 
cirrhosis of the liver. In rare instances they may perforate 
the capsule of the liver or even the portal vascular system, 
causing phlebitis and thrombosis. Sometimes they enter 
the lungs, inducing hemorrhagic foci, and encysted worm 
nodules may be found in the bronchi. From the lungs they 
may enter the arterial circulation and pass through it to all 
parts of the body. A passage from the mother to the fetus 
through the placental circulation occasionally happens, 
which accounts for their appearance in newborn calves. 



148 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

Symptoms. — In cattle, as a rule, notwithstanding the 
great inroads which the parasites make on the liver, clinical 
symptoms are absent. In sheep, however, they produce 
symptoms of a severe general disease — anemia, hydremia, 
and ultimately cachexia. After a latent period of one or 
two months, and usually in the autumn, the infested sheep 
begin showing symptoms of general anemia (" paper skin"). 
In the early winter the sheep begin to get thin, show chronic 
indigestion, weakness, edema of the eyelids, throat region, 
and ventral portion of the abdomen (anasarca), and also 
ascites. As these symptoms may also occur in other worm 
plagues of the sheep a diagnosis can be made only by a 
necropsy or by examining the feces for eggs. 

Course. — The course is very varied. In severe cases after 
a period of three months death ensues. In other instances 
the sheep may live through the winter and die in the spring, 
or recover after the emigration of the flukes, which takes 
place in the following autumn. 

Treatment. — A medicinal treatment is of no value. Experi- 
ence with arsenic and the various vermifuges have given no 
results. The principal indication is to strengthen the con- 
stitution of the sheep by intensive feeding and proper care. 

Prophylaxis. — The sheep should be kept off infested 
pastures, especially land which lies low. The sheep should 
be given a wide range and kept in small flocks. Short 
pasture is dangerous because the cercarise are found close 
to the grass roots. The egg-infested manure should be 
spread out on land which is to be tilled and the livers of the 
dead sheep rendered harmless. 

ECHINOCOCCUS DISEASE OF THE LIVER. 

Definition. — An inflammation of the liver due to an invasion 
of the echinococcus parasite. 

Occurrence. — The disease is quite common in cattle and 
swine but rare in other animals. 

Natural History. — The echinococcus cyst is the larva of the 
Taenia echinococcus, a tapeworm of the dog. The segments 
of the tapeworm are voided with the feces of the dog, pollut- 



ECHINOCOCCUS DISEASE OF THE LIVER 149 

ing stables and pastures where they are taken up by herbiv- 
orous animals. The embryos which hatch from the eggs 
in the stomach and intestines of the new host wander into 
the bile ducts and portal circulation of the liver in which 
organ they form cysts, some of which contain scoleces. The 
cysts vary in size from a pea to a human head. In turn if a 
liver containing the cysts is eaten by a dog there develops 
in the intestine of the dog the parent tapeworm, the Taenia 
echinococcus. 

Two varieties of Taenia echinococcus have been deter- 
mined: (1) The Echinococcus unilocularis, which is the most 
common form, is usually found in sheep. This cyst forms either 
a simple cyst or there may be adherent to a principal cyst 
secondary or tertiary cysts. (2) The Echinococcus multi- 
locularis. This cyst is comparatively rare and is found in 
cattle. It has no capsule but forms in the liver a prolifer- 
ating tumor containing many lacunae and macroscopically 
resembles somewhat a carcinoma. 

Besides the liver the echinococcus may invade the lung, 
heart, muscle, brain, and peritoneum, or even occasionally 
bone or cartilage (the sternum). 

Symptoms. — The symptoms produced by the presence of 
this parasite in the liver are usually very vague. In cattle 
notwithstanding a great development of cysts in the liver the 
animals usually appear perfectly healthy. In general the 
symptoms are those of a chronic digestive disturbance and 
emaciation. Sometimes the animals show sensitiveness over 
the region of the liver and on percussion an increase in the 
area of hepatic dulness. On rectal examination sometimes 
the enlarged nodular liver may be felt. In individual cases 
chronic bloating may result, as in mediastinal tuberculosis, 
causing compression of the gullet. In swine ascites is an 
occasional symptom. In very rare instances the rupture of 
superficial cysts causes fatal peritonitis. Recent application 
of the complement-fixation test, using the fluid contained 
in the cysts as the antigen, has demonstrated that it is 
valuable in diagnosis. 

Treatment. — No satisfactory treatment for the disease is 
known. Of great importance is the prevention which consists 



150 DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

in the destruction of all echinococcus cysts found on post- 
mortem and the use of tseniafuges to drive out the adult 
parasite in dogs. 

RUPTURE OF THE LIVER. 

Definition. — Rupture of the liver with hemorrhage into the 
abdominal cavity. 

Etiology. — The causes are generally traumatic (falls, kicks, 
jumping, overexertion, etc.) or more rarely rupture may 
occur spontaneously from fatty liver, carcinoma of the liver, 
or in primary or secondary (anthrax, purpura) hepatitis. It 
can result from amyloid liver and embolism. Phosphorus 
poisoning may also be a cause. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of rupture of the liver attended 
by marked hemorrhage are those of internal hemorrhage, such 
as pale mucous membranes, imperceptible pulse, general 
sweating and staggering gait. Death usually ensues in about 
one to ten hours. Small hemorrhages may heal under cicat- 
rization. 

Treatment. — Treatment is rarely successful unless the hem- 
orrhage is relatively slight. Recommended are subcutaneous 
doses of ergot (5ij), hydrastis or adrenalin (1 to 5 c.c. of a 
1 to 1000 solution for each 250 pounds body weight). To 
strengthen the heart oil of camphor may be given. 

NECROSIS OF THE LIVER. 

Definition. — A multiple necrosis of the liver is a process 
characterized on necropsy by pea- to walnut-sized dry, yellow, 
circumscribed centres in the livers of cattle, swine and sheep. 
It is due to the necrosis bacillus. Fibrinous peritonitis fre- 
quently attends the condition. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are very vague and consist in an 
enlargement of the liver, sensitiveness over the region of the 
liver, high fever, languor, disturbance in appetite, alternating 
constipation and diarrhea. 

Treatment. — The disorder which can be rarely diagnosed 
does not yield to treatment. 



PARASITES IN THE LIVER 151 



AMYLOID LIVER. 

Character. — Amyloid degeneration of the liver occurs in 
animals and generally in connection with amyloid kidney. 
It is usually the result of chronic suppuration (strangles, 
pleuritis, abscess of the liver, etc.). The amyloid liver is 
characterized by its large size, grayish or yellowish-gray color, 
and soft, cheesy, friable consistency. In the presence of iodin 
it gives a characteristic rich mahogany-brown color. 

Symptoms. — The clinical symptoms are very indefinite. 
They are those of anemia, cachexia, intermittent colic, icterus, 
rupture of the liver, and internal hemorrhage. 

CARCINOMA OF THE LIVER. 

Mostly secondary from metastasis. Except in older dogs, is 
rare in animals. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are very vague and consist in 
disturbance in digestion, emaciation, anemia, icterus, colic 
symptoms, peritonitis, rupture of the liver and fatal hemor- 
rhage. 

GALL-STONES. CHOLELITHIASIS. 

Very rare in animals. They occasionally are met with in 
cattle and dogs. 

Symptoms.— The principal symptoms they induce are colic 
(horses and cattle), icterus, and digestive disturbances. 

Diagnosis. — A diagnosis is rarely made during life. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in the use of artificial 
Carlsbad salts. 

PARASITES IN THE LIVER. 

Parasites other than those mentioned in the liver of large 
animals are Cysticercus tenuicollis, the cyst of the tapeworm 
Taenia marginata of the dog. These cysts are usually found 
in sheep, swine and calves. The Sclerostomum bidentatum 
is occasionally found in the liver of the horse. 



CHAPTER VI. 
DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM. 

PERITONITIS. 

Definition. — An inflammation of the peritoneum. The fol- 
lowing forms may be distinguished : From the standpoint of 
course, acute and chronic; extent, circumscribed and diffuse. 
According to the exudate a dry (sicca) and an exudative, the 
latter being serous, serofibrinous, purulent, ichoric or hemor- 
rhagic. Specific types are the tubercular and glanders peri- 
tonitis. 

Occurrence. — Peritonitis is usually secondary in animals. 
The horse is most commonly subject to it, the result of colics 
and laparotomies (cryptorchid castration). It is also seen in 
cattle, due to puerperal infection and traumatic gastritis. 

Etiology. — The causes of peritonitis are varied and from an 
etiological standpoint the following forms may be dis- 
tinguished : 

(a) Traumatic peritonitis due to penetrating abdominal 
wounds from without or from rupture and perforation of 
internal organs (stomach, bowel, uterus, bladder, spleen, or 
liver), or the bursting of a mesenteric abscess from within. 
Most active in traumatic peritonitis are streptococci and the 
colon bacillus. In peritonitis following stomach or bowel 
rupture death may occur before peritonitis actually develops, 
due to peritoneal sepsis. 

(b) Peritonitis is secondary to inflammation of organs con- 
tiguous to the peritoneum, the inflammation spreading from 
the stomach, bowel, uterus, bladder, or liver. Peritonitis 
may be secondary to pleuritis. 

(c) Via metastasis peritonitis may develop in the course of 
pyemia and septicemia, tuberculosis and glanders. Carci- 
noma and sarcoma may involve the peritoneum. Peritonitis 
may also accompany hemorrhagic septicemia in cattle. 



PERITONITIS 153 

Symptoms. — As peritonitis is nearly always secondary, its 
symptoms are preceded by those of the primary disease 
(colics, metritis, septicemia) . 

In acute diffuse peritonitis the following symptoms are 
present: abdominal pain (colic) is prominent especially 
toward the end. The patient usually does not roll or even 
lie down as in colic. The gait is stiff, the animal moving as 
one piece, avoiding short turns, and in peritonitis following 
castration the hind legs are advanced in abduction, the animal 
walking in a straddled fashion. The abdominal wall is tense 
and in many instances bloating is present. Sensitiveness is 
not so marked in horses but in some cases pain is evinced by 
manual pressure. 

The pulse is rapid (80), irregular and hard ("serous mem- 
brane" pulse), often "wiry." The respirations are increased, 
shallow and of the costal type. With increasing bloating or 
accumulation of abdominal exudate, the dyspnea becomes 
more marked. The temperature is usually high (108° to 
109° F.) but of no particular type. 1 The conjunctiva is highly 
reddened in the early stages but later becomes "muddy" or 
even cyanotic. The peristalsis is suppressed and usually there 
is obstinate constipation with tenesmus. The urine is voided 
at frequent intervals under symptoms of strangury. 

The general condition of the patient is that of great prostra- 
tion. The facial expression is anxious, and the body often 
covered with a cold sweat. Forced movements are not un- 
common (walking in a circle, etc.). 

On rectal examination at times the surface of the peri- 
toneum may be felt roughened. 

Diagnosis. — The sudden development, the fever, serous 
membrane pulse, bloating, stiff gait, obstinate constipation, 
and colicky pains form characteristic symptoms of peritonitis, 
especially if they follow a primary disease or operation (colic, 
castration) to which peritonitis can be a sequela. Most valu- 
able is the finding of the rough and sensitive peritoneal sur- 
face on rectal examination. 

Confusion with "colics" due to acute dilatation of the 
stomach, tympanites, displacements of bowel or gastro- 

1 In rare instances in perforative peritonitis (sepsis!) it is subnormal. 



154 DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM 

enteritis are very probable, especially if the pulse becomes 
frequent and irregular early. However, the character cf the 
pulse in peritonitis is harder and in gastro-enteritis diarrhea 
with loud peristalsis is present. In ordinary "colics" due to 
fecal stasis, etc. there is no fever present and the pulse is 
softer in quality. 

Chronic or circumscribed peritonites can rarely be diag- 
nosed. 

Course. — In acute diffuse peritonitis, especially when a 
sequela to gastric or intestinal rupture or the bursting of a 
mesenteric abscess (strangles), the course is obviously rapid 
and fatal, causing death within twenty-four hours. In less 
violent cases the disease may last several days (four to four- 
teen) and lead to death; or more rarely become chronic, 
lasting for months, leading to adhesions (adhesive peritonitis) 
and ascites, causing the patient to suffer from periodical 
attacks of colic. There is usually edema of the ventral part 
of the abdomen. 

Prognosis. — Acute diffuse peritonitis is a very fatal disease 
usually leading to death in a few hours. In mild infections 
not associated with the perforation of the stomach or bowel 
or the escape of pus in the abdominal cavity death may not 
ensue for several days. Circumscribed peritonitis rarely leads 
to death. Chronic peritonitis may persist for months or 
even years and cause adhesions which may in some cases 
affect digestion. Peritonitis due to penetrating abdominal 
wounds if treated according to surgical principles before in- 
fection has become extensive may be kept under control, its 
spread prevented and healing produced. 

Treatment.— The treatment of acute diffuse peritonitis con- 
sists in the use of hot applications or of sharp counterirri- 
tants, such as turpentine or the oil of mustard in alcohol 
(1 to 12). To prevent the spread of the inflammation by the 
movements of the intestines, opium (5j~ij) should be given. 
Later mild purgatives such as calomel (5 j) may be employed. 
Attempts, however, should be made to allay constipation by 
using lukewarm clysters rather than through the use of drugs. 
Later to assist in the absorption of ascitic fluids diaphoretics 
and diuretics may be tried. Tapping may be employed and 



ABDOMINAL HYDROPSY— ASCITES 155 

repeated as often as the indications warrant. If the heart 
becomes weak oil of camphor may be used. This drug is 
also recommended as an intraperitoneal injection (gv) which 
decreases the absorbing power of the peritoneum. In small 
animals a laparotomy can be performed and the abdomen 
flushed out with antiseptics. 

ABDOMINAL HYDROPSY. ASCITES. 

Definition. — Strictly speaking, ascites is an accumulation of 
transudate in the abdominal cavity. In a broader sense it 
would include the fluid exudate, the result of chronic peri- 
tonitis. 

Occurrence. — Ascites, while common in dogs, is rare in the 
horse and ox. An exception is noted in cattle fed large quan- 
tities of turnips or the residue of beet-sugar factories. In the 
horse ascites is generally a symptom of chronic peritonitis or 
interstitial hepatitis. 

Etiology. — From an etiological standpoint three forms are 
recognized, viz., ascites due to (a) passive congestion, (b) 
hydremia, and (c) peritonitis. 

In ascites due to passive congestion there is a mechanical 
disturbance to the blood circulation in the course of chronic 
heart (valvular disease), lung, liver (cirrhosis), or kidney 
disease, leading to blood stasis in the vena cava and portal 
veins. A portal congestion can also result from enlarged 
lymph glands (mesenteric!). An hydremic ascites is most 
common in sheep and cattle, due to animal parasitism (liver- 
fluke disease) and the hydremia which attends cachectic 
conditions. The peritonitic ascites accompanies simple 
chronic peritonitis and is sometimes a symptom of tubercu- 
losis (ox), carcinomatosis or sarcomatosis of the peritoneum. 

Symptoms. — The principal symptom is the distention of 
the abdomen, which becomes pear-shaped, due to the fluid 
contained therein. Thirty to forty gallons may collect in the 
horse or ox. Fluctuation may be noted on palpation. On 
percussion of the lower abdomen a flat tone is emitted with a 
horizontal upper line which shifts as the position of the 
patient (small animals) is changed. When tapped a, clear 



156 DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM 

yellow fluid may be drawn off. The specific gravity of the 
fluid is about 1012 and the albumin about 2 to 4 per cent. 
There is usually no fever. If a large quantity of fluid is 
present it may press the diaphragm forward and interfere 
with the action of the lungs, inducing dyspnea. Usually 
there are also symptoms of the primary disease present (heart 
bruits, albuminuria, examination of blood) . Often associated 
with ascites are hydrothorax, hydropericardium, and ana- 
sarca (speaks for heart lesions). If the portal system alone is 
involved (cirrhosis of the liver) only ascites may be present. 

Diagnosis. — In large animals, unless the ascites is marked 
(abdominal distention), due to the tenseness of the abdominal 
walls, it may be overlooked. Obviously any condition which 
enlarges the abdomen might be mistaken for it. Therefore 
pregnancy, dropsy of the fetal membranes in cows, distention 
of the bladder, urine accumulation (ruptured bladder in ox), 
and the rare cystic ovary or tumors (dogs) should be thought 
of. In large animals rectal exploration (pregnancy, distended 
bladder) is helpful in diagnosis. An explorative puncture 
can be employed in cases of doubt. It not only reveals the 
presence but the character of the fluid (transudate, exudate, 
urine, etc.). The determination of the primary disease is 
often difficult, especially when a lung or liver disease, as the 
symptoms are vague. 

Prognosis. — Unless due to feeds too rich in water or hydre- 
mia the prognosis in ascites is bad. The primary disease, of 
which it is merely a symptom, is usually incurable. 

Treatment. — Treatment is generally unsatisfactory. In 
case it is due to food too rich in water or too high an altitude 
(brisket disease of Colorado cattle), placing the patients on 
dry food or bringing them to lower levels are curative. In 
large animals medicinal treatment rarely pays. Diuretics, 
such as digitalis (fid. ext. 5j) or theobroma (5ij), may be 
tried. Arecalin (gr. j) or pilocarpin (gr. v) are recommended 
if the heart will stand them. A good purge of aloes (5vj) or 
Glauber salts (lb.j) is useful. 

Tapping the abdomen is advisable when dyspnea is dis- 
tressing the patient. The operation may be repeated several 
times provided the patient eats and is allowed ample nourish- 



ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE PERITONEUM 157 

ment to compensate for the loss of albumin. Omentopexy is 
employed in human practice. This is the operation of sutur- 
ing the omentum to the abdominal wall, securing anastomotic 
communication between the portal system and that of the 
vena cava, thus producing a collateral circulation between 
the portal and general circulation. 

TUMORS OF THE PERITONEUM. 

Carcinoma and occasionally melanotic sarcomas occur in 
the peritoneum. On the visceral peritoneum fibromas, lip- 
omas, and myxomas are occasionally seen. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of tumors of the peritoneum 
are usually too vague for diagnosis. When generalized car- 
cinomatosis is present the patient becomes cachectic and 
shows ascites, which would lead to the suspicion that the 
peritoneum was involved. In horses and cattle the tumor 
may sometimes be palpated through the rectum. 

Treatment. — Treatment is rarely possible, although benign 
tumors might be removed surgically. 

ANIMAL PARASITES IN THE PERITONEUM. 

Horse. The Filaria papillosa is commonly found in the 
peritoneum of horses. The larva? of sclerostoma also occur. 
They are commonly encapsuled, or more rarely adult speci- 
mens are found free in the abdominal cavity. 

Sheep. In sheep the Cysticercus tenuicollis is very fre- 
quent and may lead to acute peritonitis. It appears as large 
hickory nut- to walnut-sized cysts surrounded by peritoneum. 
The neck of the parasite is inverted into the cyst. Liver 
flukes are also occasionally found in the peritoneum of sheep. 

Swine. In swine the Stephenurus dentatus, a thread-like 
parasite, is not uncommon. More rarely echinococci and the 
Cysticercus tenuicollis occur. 



PART IV. 
DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. 



PUERPERAL SEPTICEMIA. 

Definition. — A septicemia which comes from infected 
wounds in the birth passages. 

Occurrence. — This form of septicemia which follows par- 
turition is most common in cows, although it occurs occa- 
sionally in mares, due to an infected wound (tears) in the 
vulva, vagina or uterus. 

Etiology. — The causes are usually streptococci or the colon 
bacillus. The infection is carried into the vagina or uterus 
with the hands, instruments, ropes, etc., used by the obstet- 
rician in attempting delivery. The result of the infection is 
usually an ulcerous or croupodiphtheritic inflammation of 
the uterus and vagina, with which is usually associated 
phlegmon. A metritis and perimetritis may at times develop 
and also a peritonitis. Besides the local conditions noted we 
have the general changes due to septicemia and pyemia, such 
as swelling of the parenchymatous organs, hemorrhages, and 
metastatic abscesses in internal organs. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of puerperal septicemia de- 
velop within one to four days after parturition. The animal 
may show abdominal pain, straining, and from the vagina 
there will flow at first a blood-stained discharge which later 
becomes putrid and odorous. The lips of the vulva are 
edematous, cold, and discolored. The temperature is high, 
reaching in the cow 107.6° F.; the pulse rapid, irregular, 
weak; there is no appetite; rumination is suppressed and 
usually the patient soon lapses into a state of paralysis of the 



160 DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 

hind parts and unconsciousness. Decubitus develops very 
rapidly. 

Diagnosis. — Puerperal septicemia might be confused with 
parturient paresis. However, it may be distinguished from 
the latter by the local swelling of the genital organs, vaginal 
discharge, high fever, and absence of pronounced muscular 
paralysis. Puerperal septicemia clinically very closely re- 
sembles sapremia due to retained placenta. In some cases 
a differentiation cannot be made until after the uterus has 
been cleaned of its putrid contents and disinfected. In 
sapremia the patient rapidly recovers once the cause is 
removed. 

Course. — Puerperal septicemia is very often fatal, death 
occurring within three or four days, or in some instances 
within a single day. Recovery may occur in one or two weeks. 
In some cases the patient is left in a state of chronic pyemia 
which leads to emaciation, intermittent fever, chronic vaginal 
discharge, and purulent endometritis (pyometra). If second- 
ary abscesses develop in organs, such as the lungs, kidneys, 
udder, joints, etc., the course is prolonged. In horses pur- 
pura may be a sequela. 

Prognosis. — Prognosis is generally unfavorable, 70 per cent, 
of the patients dying in the acute attack or from resultant 
complications. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists in a thorough disinfection 
of the uterus and vagina with a solution of lysol or creolin 
(2 per cent.). In the mare bichlorid of mercury (1 to 1000) 
may be employed. The general symptoms, such as fever and 
weakness, may be combated symptomatically with alcohol 
and veratrin (gr. ij). 

Prevention. — Prevention consists in having all obstetrical 
instruments, ropes, and the hands of the operator disinfected 
before attempting to assist in delivery. 

PARTURIENT PARESIS. MILK FEVER. 

Definition. — A non-febrile disease of cattle, swine, and goats 
occurring at or following parturition and characterized by 
general paralysis and usually unconsciousness. 



PARTURIENT PARESIS—MILK FEVER 161 

Occurrence. — The disorder is common among cows, espe- 
cially valuable dairy cows, which are heavy feeders and deep 
milkers. It usually occurs at the acme of lactation and in 
cows that are well bred and in prime condition. Thin cows 
or very fat cows do not seem predisposed. When delivery 
has been difficult, parturient paresis is less apt to occur than 
when the birth has been easy and the expulsion of the after- 
birth prompt. 

Primipara are very rarely attacked. Usually it occurs in 
cows from the third to the fifth calving. 

Etiology. — The causes of parturient paresis are unknown. 
The following theories have been suggested : (a) auto-intoxi- 
cation from the uterus or udder resembling ptomaine poison- 
ing; (b) it may be an anaphylactic phenomenon or (c) an 
anemia of the brain, the result of the sudden blood flow to the 
udder or in consequence of a vasomotor collapse. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms usually begin twelve to forty- 
eight hours after delivery. A few cases are recorded where 
the attack came on during or even before the birth. The prin- 
cipal symptoms are a suddenly developing general motor and 
sensory paralysis, with loss of consciousness. After showing 
some symptoms of languor, weakness, and staggering gait 
the cow lies down. She may regain her feet but arises with 
difficulty. Finally she becomes completely paralyzed and 
unconscious. Often the patient is found lying on her sternum 
with her head thrown around against the flank, the muzzle 
resting close to the udder. In other cases she lies flat on her 
side. The respirations are slow and deep, the temperature 
normal to subnormal. From the nostrils a lymph-like fluid 
is discharged. Besides these general symptoms those of 
specific paralyses of the cranial nerves occur, especially the 
oculomotor, trigeminal, glossopharyngeal, vagus, hypoglossus, 
and sometimes the opticus. 

The oculomotor paralysis is expressed by drooping of the 
upper eyelids (ptosis) and dilatation of the pupil; the tri- 
geminal paralysis leads to sinking of the lower jaw; the 
glossopharyngeal paralysis leads to dysphagia; the vagus 
paralysis produces inactivity of the muscles of the larynx, 

leading to stenotic, noisy respirations. It also increases the 
11 



162 DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 

frequency of the pulse and induces a paralysis of the gullet 
and stomach (tympanites) ; the paralysis of the hypoglossus 
causes prolapse of the tongue and the paralysis of the optic 
nerve produces amaurosis. As the sympathetic nerve is also 
involved, paralysis of the brain and urinary bladder occur. 

Course. — The course is very acute. Untreated animals may 
die in twelve to forty-eight hours. In a few cases the disease 
may take a subacute course, with relapses. Cases which 
recover from the parturient paresis may die in about one 
week from foreign-body pneumonia, due to the dysphagia, 
which allows medicines, saliva, and paunch contents to 
enter the windpipe and lungs. Occasionally a case is left 
with a chronic paraplegia which may last for two or three 
weeks, and end in recovery or through decubital gangrene 
lead to death. Mastitis and necrosis of the deep muscles of 
the femur are rare complications. 

Prognosis. — While formerly the mortality was 50 per cent., 
since the use of the new method of treatment it has been 
reduced to 10 per cent. 

Treatment. — The best treatment for parturient paresis is 
that first suggested by Schmidt of Kolding, Denmark, who 
in the year 1897 recommended the injection of a solution of 
iodid of potash into the udder. Later oxygen gas was em- 
ployed, and still later sterile air. This treatment is simple: 
By means of a pump air is forced through surgeon's cotton 
into the teat canals until the udder is well inflated. In most 
instances a remarkably prompt reaction on the part of the 
patient is obtained. Obviously the instrument, especially 
the teat tube, should be sterile, the ends of the teats thor- 
oughly disinfected and the hands of the operator clean. The 
instrument should be sterilized by boiling rather than the 
use of antiseptics. In fact, it is not advisable to permit anti- 
septics to enter the udder, as mastitis is apt to result. If the 
sphincters of the teats are too weak to retain the air, bandages 
may be placed around the teats to reinforce them. Other- 
wise ligation should not be employed. If after three to six 
hours no results come from the first inflation of the udder a 
second inflation may follow. If done under aseptic precau- 
tions several inflations will be tolerated by the mammary 
gland without danger of infection. 



ABNORMALITIES IN SEXUAL DESIRE 163 

Whether or not medicinal treatment in addition to the 
use of air is of value is debatable. In the average run of 
cases it is certainly unnecessary, except perhaps for the affect 
it may have on the owner. The use of excitants such as the 
subcutaneous injections of caffein (5j), strychnin (gr. ss) or 
arecalin (gr. j) is recommended as an auxiliary treatment. 
Giving medicine via the mouth should be avoided. 



ABNORMALITIES IN SEXUAL DESIRE. 

In animals the sexual desire may deviate from the normal 
in two ways, viz. : it may be abnormally increased, producing 
a condition known as nymphomania in the female and saty- 
riasis in the male. On the other hand, the sexual desire may 
be diminished in either the male or the female. Of particular 
importance is the nymphomania of cows, mares and sows 
and the diminished sexual desire of the male. Occasionally 
cows do not come in estrum which greatly lessens their 
economic value. 

Nymphomania. — Etiology. — The causes of nymphomania 
are not always determinable. In cows a common cause is 
cystic ovaries or more rarely tuberculosis or tumors (sarcoma, 
carcinoma) in the ovaries. Diseases of the uterus such as 
endometritis, and occlusion of the os may lead to a cow failing 
to conceive and therefore a repeated return of the period of 
estrum. In other instances the causes seem to lie outside 
of the reproductive organs and probably emanates from the 
spinal cord. Obviously anything which prevents conception 
and renders the female animal sterile will produce a return of 
the period of heat which is not a true nymphomania. 

Symptoms. — In cows the symptoms are those of an exag- 
gerated estrum. Repeated copulation fails to produce con- 
ception. The period of heat is also prolonged. The patients 
are nervous, excited, keep up a continued bellowing and 
running around the pasture or enclosure, mounting other 
animals and even human beings. Milch cows fall off in their 
milk and the milk itself is of poor quality. Later the patient 
emaciates, the croup sinks on each side of the root of the tail, 



164 DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 

as in pregnant animals, and the neck thickens, resembling 
that of the male. 

In mares there is a frequent and almost continuous estrum 
followed by failure to conceive or abortion if bred. The 
patient is ticklish, nervous, frequently switches her tail, 
blinks the vulva, ejecting small quantities of urine, and often 
becomes vicious, kicking in harness or biting at other animals 
or persons who come near her. Some mares on the contrary 
show symptoms of cerebral depression, as in hydrocephalus 
(act like dummies). Very rarely they show maniacal symp- 
toms or convulsions. If the condition persists for any 
length of time the patient loses flesh and shows a capricious 
appetite. 

In sows much the same symptoms occur as in the horse 
and ox. The sow is continuously in heat, does not conceive 
when bred, eats poorly and consequently loses flesh and 
becomes unprofitable. She will mount continuously other 
swine and may become vicious, attacking other animals or 
man. 

Treatment. — The best treatment for confirmed cases of 
nymphomania is ovariectomy which is especially valuable in 
mares and cows. In some instances crushing the ovarian 
cysts through the rectum and vagina has given favorable 
results. The amputation of the clitoris which for a time was 
much practised in mares is only occasionally successful. 
Placing a leaden ball in the uterus is rarely of benefit. The 
use of narcotic drugs such as bromid of potash, morphin 
and chloral hydrate has but a temporary effect. Laxatives 
are also employed but do no permanent good. In America 
large doses of salix nigra have been recommended. The 
preparation of this drug, made by Lloyd Brothers, of Cin- 
cinnati, is highly spoken of. Obviously it will have no per- 
manent effect upon cases of nymphomania due to gross 
lesions in the reproductive organs. 

Diminished Sexual Desire. — Etiology. — A great many 
causes may diminish the sexual appetite. The patient may 
be overfat, of phlegmatic temperament or may be debili- 
tated from recent illness. Special causes are congenital de- 
fects and acquired diseases of the reproductive organs. As 



STERILITY , 165 

examples may be mentioned chronic endometritis, atrophy, 
degeneration and aplasia of the testicles or ovaries. Exces- 
sive sexual use, especially when the animals are young, and 
long-continued masturbation are causes. Often the cause is 
purely psychic. For instance, many jacks refuse to cover 
mares, although jennets are served with promptness. Zebra 
stallions will rarely copulate in the presence of persons, 
although if left alone with the female the coital act is promptly 
committed. 

Treatment. — Diminished sexual desire should not be con- 
fused with impotency or sterility, although it may be a cause 
of these. The food and care of the animal should be looked 
after and any apparent discrepancies in these factors removed. 
If the patient is overfat curtailing the food ration, allowing 
greater quantities of protein and plenty of exercise may over- 
come the condition. Some male animals which have been 
kept isolated or away from females for a long time seem to 
lose the sexual habit. Very young stallions which have never 
covered a mare must sometimes be encouraged and stimu- 
lated to perform the coital act. Jacks which refuse to serve 
mares can often be stimulated sexually by allowing them to 
smell the urine from a jennet in heat or sometimes even by 
holding a jennet where they can see her while approaching 
or teasing the mare to be served. Certain drugs (aphrodis- 
iacs) will stimulate sexual desire. Cantharides (cows 5j> 
mares 3ss; or the tincture, cattle 5v and mares 3 iiss) has 
long been employed as an agent to promote sexual desire. 
Of late Yohimbin, used subcutaneously, is recommended. 
Its cost makes it almost prohibitive for veterinary use. 

STERILITY. 

Definition. — By the term sterility we understand that the 
female animal is barren or unable to produce young. 

Occurrence. — Sterility is very common, especially among 
well-bred cows, and obviously attains great economic impor- 
tance. 

Etiology. — Sterility is a symptom and not a disease. It 
can have, therefore, a great many causes. To go into these in 



166 , DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 

detail is beyond the scope of this work. The most common 
causes, however, are: Disease of the uterus, often a chronic 
catarrh the result of retained placenta or abortion. In some 
instances purulent endometritis or chronic catarrh of the 
cervix or vagina may be the cause. In other cases sterility 
may be due to the ovaries which are cystic or fibrously 
degenerated, or tumors, or an adhesive peritonitis with dis- 
placement of the ovary. Furthermore, the uterine tubes may 
be stenotic or occluded. Occasionally tuberculosis of the 
uterus or ovaries is a cause. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are failure to conceive, although 
the animal may be bred repeatedly. Occasionally she may 
never come in heat. In either case she remains barren. 

Prognosis. — Obviously the prognosis depends on the cause. 
If due merely to a catarrh of the vagina or uterus, which 
yields to treatment, or to cystic ovaries and the cysts can be 
crushed manually, recovery may be expected. On the other 
hand, if due to displacement, tumor formation, tuberculosis, 
atrophy or aplasia of the ovary the case is hopeless. The same 
is true of hermaphrodism. Occasionally twins are sterile, 
though not always. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in removing the cause. 
In cases of chronic catarrhal or suppurative endometritis or 
vaginitis a thorough disinfection of the genital tract often 
produces results. If due to occlusion of the os (a rare cause) 
dilating the opening may suffice. Quite often reducing the 
acidity of the catarrhally inflamed vagina, by flushing it out 
with a 0.5 per cent, solution of bicarbonate of sodium, is 
useful. Yeast has also been recommended. Obviously, on 
the other hand, where there is an organic disease of the organs 
of reproduction all of these treatments will fail. Therefore 
many cases of sterility are incurable. 

IMPOTENCY. 

Definition. — By impotency is meant the inability of the 
male to impregnate the female. There are two forms of 
impotency, viz.: (a) the animal may be incapable of per- 
forming the coital act (coital impotency) and (b) while the 



IMPOTENCY 167 

coital act may be performed, living, virile spermatozoa are 
not discharged (azoospermia) . 

Etiology. — The principal causes of that form of impotency 
which prevent coition are diseases and injuries of the penis, 
such as paralysis, tumors and fractures, or of the prepuce, 
such as phimosis and inflammation (posthitis). In other 
instances the impotency may be due to diseases of the brain 
and spinal cord or to general weakness of the body as the 
result of chronic disease. In stallions painful lameness such 
as spavin, gonitis or sacral lameness may be causes. 

The causes of the second form of impotency are usually 
due to diseases or degeneration of the testicles as orchitis, 
aplasia, atrophy, tumors or cryptorchidism leading to asper- 
mia and azoospermia. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists in removing the cause 
wherever this is possible. Obviously if organic diseases or 
injuries which cannot be remedied involve the testicles or 
penis treatment is out of question. On the other hand, if due 
to inflammation of the sheath the use of disinfectants and 
cleanliness will remove this cause. If bodily weakness and 
general debility are the causes, rest, good food and care are 
all that is necessary. Young males should not be allowed to 
serve too many females within a short period of time. Pain- 
ful conditions of the limbs are sometimes removable by the 
application of surgical treatment. 



PART V. 

DISEASES OF THE BLOOD AND BLOOD- 
PRODUCING ORGANS. 



ANEMIA. 



Definition. — Anemia is a condition in which the blood is 
deficient in quality or in quantity. The deficiency in quality 
may be a diminution of the amount of hemoglobin (oligo- 
chromemia) or in the number of red corpuscles (oligocythe- 
mia). Anemia may be local, due to the fact that the blood 
supply to a part is diminished, or it may be general. A 
primary and secondary anemia are also distinguished. 

Etiology. — Local anemia is due to a mechanical interference 
with the blood supply to a part. The interfering factor may 
be an embolism, tumor, spasm, etc. which impedes the onflow 
of the blood. A primary anemia is due to diseases of the 
blood-making organs and is usually an independent disease 
such as pernicious anemia, or leukemia. A secondary anemia 
develops from faulty nutrition (poor food), severe hemorrhage 
or accompanying bacterial animal parasitic or protozoan 
diseases such as tuberculosis, distomatosis, piroplasmosis, 
etc. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms which characterize anemia are 
paleness of the mucous membranes and skin, loss of energy, 
dyspnea, emaciation and hydremia with edematous swellings. 
The patient will also show rapid pulse, palpitation of the 
heart, cystolic heart murmurs and often fever. An examina- 
tion of the blood shows a diminution of the red corpuscles 
from one-quarter to one-half, so that in place of eight million 



170 DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 

there may be only four or even two million per c.mm. The 
number of leukocytes and the form of the erythrocytes 
remain, however, practically normal. 

Course. — While anemia produced by a sudden loss of blood 
may be fatal within a few minutes, the course in most anemias 
is chronic, lasting for months or years. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis depends upon the cause of the 
anemia. If the causes are benign and removable, such as 
moderate hemorrhage, poor food, etc., proper care and treat- 
ment will rapidly replace the lost blood. On the other hand, 
if the cause is malignant and cannot be removed, such as 
advanced tuberculosis, chronic protozoan diseases or general- 
ized carcinomatosis, the prognosis is bad. 

Treatment. — The treatment must be governed by the causes 
of the anemia. Where due to hemorrhage, poor food and the 
like obviously these conditions must be rectified. When this 
is done a rapid recovery follows. In secondary anemias the 
patients are best treated by allowing plenty of good food and 
such medicinal blood plastics as iron, arsenic, and phosphate 
of lime. In man the transfusion of blood from a healthy 
individual to the anemic one is advisable. Sometimes good 
results are obtained by the infusion of physiological salt solu- 
tions, which may be combined with adrenalin, into the veins 
or rectum. The patient should be allowed plenty of drink- 
ing water provided there is no hemorrhage present. Where 
the anemia is secondary to a malignant disease like tuber- 
culosis or cancer the treatment has only a temporary effect 
and is not curative. 

LEUKEMIA. 

Definition. — Leukemia is an anemia with a marked increase 
in the number of leukocytes in the blood. Contrary to a 
simple leukocytosis the course is chronic. 

Etiology. — Leukemia is evidently a specific disease of the 
organs which form the leukocytes such as the bone-marrow, 
lymph tissue and spleen. The causes are not understood. 

Forms. — Two forms of leukemia are now distinguished in 
animals, viz.: (a) lymphatic leukemia (lymphemia) and (b) 
myeloid leukemia (myelemia). 



LEUKEMIA 171 

(a) Lymphatic leukemia is characterized by enlargement 
of the lymph glands and the presence of small, uninuclear 
lymphocytes in the blood. 

(b) In myeloid leukemia there is an enormous enlargement 
of the spleen, the follicles of which are hyperplastic (lineal 
leukemia) . In the blood large numbers of neutrophile poly- 
nuclear leukocytes occur even as many as from one to five 
hundred thousand in place of eight thousand per c.mm. The 
erythrocytes are diminished in number and their form is 
changed. In the myelogenic leukemia the red bone-marrow 
is hyperplastic, infiltrated and often resembles pus. In the 
blood there is an increase of the large uninuclear myelocytes. 
In both forms of leukemia anemia is present. 

Symptoms. — The development of leukemia is insidious. 
Generally the patient shows lack of energy, sweats easy, 
shows capricious appetite, heart palpitation and rapid, 
small pulse. The mucous membranes become pale even to 
pure white in color. The patient grows thin, eventually 
emaciates and from time to time edematous swellings appear 
on different portions of the body. In the lymphatic form, 
which is commoner in animals than in man, swelling of the 
lymph glands appears symmetrically on both sides of the 
body. The swellings are firm, round and non-sensitive. The 
lymph glands of the maxillary space, the prepectoral and 
precrural lymph glands are commonly involved. In some 
cases the enlargement of lymph glands is so great as to inter- 
fere with the function of organs. Therefore dyspnea, roaring, 
lameness, etc., result. Occasionally an enlargement of internal 
lymph glands (mediastinal, sublumbar) leads to severe 
dyspnea, fecal retention and the like. 

In the lineal form the spleen is enormously enlarged. In 
the horse it may be palpated through the rectum and in small 
animals occasionally a distention of the left side of the 
abdomen designates the enlarged spleen. The liver is also 
greatly enlarged, in one case in the horse weighing nearly fifty 
pounds. The blood is pale, stains less intensively and coagu- 
lates very slowly. Under the microscope the number of leu- 
kocytes is greatly increased. In some instances there may be 
as many white as red corpuscles in the microscopic field. 



172 DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 

The blood separates in coagulating into two layers, a lower 
layer of red corpuscles and of violet color and an upper layer 
of milky appearance, grayish white, made up of white cor- 
puscles and some fibrin. The temperature usually is little 
changed but toward the end often becomes subnormal. In 
the last stages hemorrhages occur in the conjunctiva, gums, 
bowels, etc. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis can be made with accuracy only 
by examining the blood microscopically. In pseudoleukemia 
the symptoms described also occur but the blood shows no 
change in the number of white corpuscles. With the aid of 
the microscope the form of leukemia may also be determined 
by proper stains. 

In tuberculosis, glanders and in malignant tumors enlarge- 
ment of lymph glands also appears but the distribution of 
the enlarged glands is rarely so symmetrical and the accom- 
panying anemia not so pronounced as in leukemia. Further- 
more, by a microscopic examination of the blood, and the 
application of the proper tests, a differentiation from glanders 
or tuberculosis can be made. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis in leukemia is bad. No case of 
the disease correctly diagnosed has ever recovered. 

Treatment. — Treatment in animals should not be attempted, 
as it will not lead to success. In man arsenic, iron and the 
.r-rays have been used to prolong life. In human patients 
leukemia has been known to last for twelve years before 
causing death. 



PSEUDOLEUKEMIA. HODGKIN'S DISEASE. 

Definition. — Pseudoleukemia is a chronic disease of the 
blood-forming organs almost identical with leukemia except 
there is no increase in the number of white blood corpuscles. 

Occurrence. — Pseudoleukemia occurs in horses and cattle 
and is much more frequent than leukemia. By some authori- 
ties pseudoleukemia is supposed to represent a form of 
leukemia without increase in the number of leukocytes. The 
true cause of pseudoleukemia is not known. 



SCURVY— SCORBUTUS 173 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are identical with those of 
leukemia with the exception that the relation of the red to the 
white corpuscles is not conspicuously changed. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is bad. 

Treatment. — In man iron, arsenic, iodin, and the x-rays are 
used to prolong life. 

HYDREMIA. 

Definition. — Hydremia is a condition in which the propor- 
tion of the serum of the blood to the corpuscles is excessive. 
In cattle and sheep a severe anemia occurs with which is 
associated a general hydremia leading to edema of the skin 
(anasarca), accumulation of transudate in the abdominal 
cavity (ascites), thoracic cavity (hydro thorax) and heart sac 
(hydropericardium) . 

Etiology. — The causes are chronic diseases of organs, which 
are usually due to parasites (liver flukes or lung and stomach 
worms), or from the feeding of foods containing too much 
water such as slop, the offal of distilleries, beet-sugar factories, 
etc. A hyperemia due to high altitude occurs among cattle 
in the mountainous west (Colorado). The principal symp- 
toms of this disorder are heart palpitation, weak pulse, loss 
of flesh, languor, and edematous swellings particularly under 
the sternum. Locally the condition is known as "brisket 
disease." Removing the cattle to lower altitudes usually 
brings about a speedy recovery. 

HEMOPHILIA. 

Definition. — Hemophilia is a marked and abnormal ten- 
dency in some individuals to bleeding or hemorrhage. Some- 
times the slightest wound will bleed so profusely as to become 
serious. The condition is usually hereditary. 

Etiology. — The causes are not known. The condition is 
rare in animals. 

SCURVY. SCORBUTUS. 

Definition. — Scurvy is a disease resembling purpura, rare 
in animals, although occasionally seen in dogs. It is char- 



174 DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 

acterized by a tendency to bleed from the gums and to 
hemorrhage in various organs of the body. In animals the 
disease is probably infectious. In man scurvy is most often 
seen among sailors and persons who live upon salted meats 
and canned food but get no vegetables. Drinking lime juice 
and eating fresh vegetables usually bring about a rapid cure. 

INFECTIOUS ANEMIA OF THE HORSE. 

Swamp Fever. Riverbottom Disease. Loin 
Distemper. 

Definition. — An infectious disease of horses which is char- 
acterized by being a specific septicemia accompanied by 
intermittent or remittent fever, albuminuria and ultimately 
progressive anemia. It is probably due to a filterable virus. 

Occurrence. — Infectious anemia, while confined to infected 
areas in a country, is widely distributed. It occurs on the 
Continent of Europe and in North America where it has been 
reported from the province of Manitoba and the States of 
Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas, Wyoming, 
Colorado, Washington, Mississippi and Texas. It also occurs 
in the Panama Canal Zone. While probably most prevalent 
it is by no means confined to swampy districts but appears 
on high, well-drained lands. Naturally the disease is con- 
fined to the horse, although other equidse may be infected 
artificially. Most of the cases occur during the summer and 
early fall. While it may appear at other times of the year, 
cold weather seems to cause its abatement. As the disease 
affects a large number of horses on infected farms, rendering 
them incapable of performing work and causing many deaths, 
its economic importance locally is very great. In a herd of 
28 horses used for railroad construction in North Dakota in 
the year 1908, the loss from infectious anemia was 17. In 
another reported instance in the same State, of 242 head the 
loss sustained in a single year was 98 (40.5 per cent.). While 
it is very probable that the laity in swamp-fever districts are 
apt to accredit to this disease losses in horse flesh from other 
causes, nevertheless it forms a serious menace to the horse 



INFECTIOUS ANEMIA OF THE HORSE 175 

industry and should it become more wide-spread the financial 
loss resulting would be very great. 

The disease will remain on a given farm for a number of 
years (10-15) where annually it causes losses among the 
horses. 

Etiology. — Infectious anemia is due to a filterable virus 
which cannot be demonstrated by staining methods nor by 
cultivation. The virus is contained in the blood, urine, and 
feces of both clinical cases of the disease and apparently 
healthy horses. According to some authorities the feces, 
however, will not transmit the disease. It is very probable 
that the feces are infectious only when mixed with infected 
urine. 

The disease may be transmitted by virulent blood or urine 
given intravenously, subcutaneously or orally. Other domes- 
ticated animals and guinea-pigs do not seem susceptible. 

Natural Infection. — The disease seems to be taken up through 
the digestive tract in food, water, stable litter, etc., which 
have become contaminated with the urine and feces of in- 
fected animals. On poorly drained pasture fields pools of 
water may easily become polluted with the discharges of 
infected horses, especially with urine, thus serving as sources 
of infection. The disease does not seem to be contagious or 
directly communicable. Cases are recorded where healthy 
horses have been confined in stables and mingled freely for 
months with sick ones without evidence of any transmission 
of the disease. It is possible that patients are not eliminating 
the virus continuously and during all stages of the disease. 

Suckling colts are not infected through nursing diseased 
mothers nor has an intra-uterine infection been observed. 

The disease is usually introduced into a community by 
the purchase of either a clinical case or an apparently healthy 
horse (" missed case"). 

Necropsy. — In general the postmortem findings are those 
of an acute or chronic septicemia. Depending upon the dura- 
tion of the disease they offer great variations. There are no 
postmortem changes which can be considered pathogno- 
monic. The principal changes noted are: Petechias and 
ecchymoses occurring under the serous membranes especially 



176 DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 

of the epicardium and endocardium, spleen and bowels; 
swelling of the lymph glands which are usually blood-shot; 
changes in the color and structure of the bone-marrow, 
especially of the long bones. A longitudinal section of the 
femur or humerus, for instance, will show in the bone-marrow 
dark red areas which are sharply demarcated from the 
yellow portion. In acute cases there may be marked swelling 
of the spleen, a symptom not so manifest in chronic cases. 
The blood may show no macroscopic changes; in chronic 
cases it appears of lighter color, watery. While the condition 
of the cadaver may be good in acute cases, in chronic ones 
it is usually emaciated and shows edematous swellings of the 
skin of pendant portions (sheath). Icteric discoloration of 
the tissues is not rare. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation after artificial inocu- 
lation varies from five to nine days. From natural infection 
it is usually two or three weeks. Two clinical types of the 
disease may be recognized : (a) The acute form which begins 
suddenly with symptoms of languor and muscular weakness. 
The horse tires easily at work, may fall to the ground in 
harness and must be assisted to its feet. Quite often this 
weakness is most pronounced in the hind parts ("loin 
distemper"). 

Fever is a constant symptom, the temperature reaching 
its acme in two or three days, ranging from 104° to 107° F. The 
fever is of a remittent or intermittent type continuing until 
the death of the patient, periods of increased temperature 
alternating with feverless periods lasting one or two days. 
The pulse usually ranges from 60 to 90, is soft and weak. The 
heart beat is often tumultuous, a symptom increased by 
exercise. 

The conjunctiva appears puffy, swollen, slightly tinged with 
yellow and occasionally spotted with petechia? which are 
principally on the nictating membrane. There is usually 
slight lacrimation. The nasal mucosa is congested and shows 
petechia?. There may be a slight nasal discharge of reddish 
color. The patient often shows diarrhea, the feces blood- 
stained, and a constant symptom is albuminuria, the amount 
of albumin varying from a mere trace to 1.5 per cent. The 



INFECTIOUS ANEMIA OF THE HORSE 177 

albuminuria is, however, not continuous but usually appears 
synchronous with a rise in temperature. The appetite in 
acute cases, especially during a fever attack, is impaired; in 
chronic cases a good appetite may be retained. The general 
condition of the patient rapidly becomes bad. Accompany- 
ing the febrile attacks there is usually great loss of flesh, the 
patient finally becoming extremely emaciated. 

There is a tendency for edemas to appear on the limbs, 
under the thorax or ventral portion of the abdomen. Quite 
often, however, these swellings are absent. 

The blood shows little tendency to coagulate and the blood- 
serum is discolored yellow or somewhat greenish its color 
varying with each change in angle of observation. There is 
a great diminution in the number of red corpuscles which 
in a period of two weeks can be reduced to two million or 
less. 

As the disease progresses the animal grows weak, emaci- 
ated, cachectic, paralyzed behind, covered with decubital 
sores and dies of inanition. Pregnant mares often abort. 
The acute form usually lasts from one to four weeks. In 
young colts it may end fatally in from one to two days. 

(b) Chronic type. — The chronic type of infectious anemia 
is characterized by periodical attacks of fever with feverless 
periods of varied duration between. Sometimes the fever- 
less interval is only a few days, at others it may be a few 
weeks or even months. The fever attack may last two to 
four days or longer. The rise and fall of the temperature 
take place gradually. The pulse is usually increased when the 
temperature is high but generally only slightly. The mucous 
membranes in the early stages are normal but later become 
anemic. Petechias are rarely seen. During the fever periods 
the anemia may temporarily disappear. Albuminuria is a 
constant symptom occurring concomitant with a fever period. 
In some instances diarrhea is noted and occasionally colic. 
The general condition of the patient becomes bad, it grows 
thin, the hair loses its luster, stands on end, the skin becomes 
dry. The patient is extremely weak, the tail hangs motion- 
less, the sphincter ani relaxes and incontinence of urine and 
feces appear. Quite often the appetite is preserved until the 
12 



178 DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 

end. In some cases the condition of the animal is retained to a 
remarkable degree; beyond an intermittent or remittent fever 
the patient may show no symptoms for many weeks or 
months. During the course of the disease in individual 
animals many exacerbations and remissions are noted. 

The chronic form may last for several months; in a few 
cases even for years. 

Diagnosis. — In some instances the diagnosis is not difficult; 
in others it is impossible unless blood inoculations are made. 
Where a district is known to be infected and the symptoms 
of anemia, emaciation, edematous swellings, anemic pulse, 
extreme weakness and usually good appetite are present, a 
correct diagnosis can generally be arrived at without much 
danger of error. On the other hand, where the patient shows 
no anemia, and the condition remains good, the diagnosis 
can be extremely difficult. Only by taking the temperature 
daily for a long period of time or by blood inoculations can 
the disease be determined. The complement-fixation test 
has shown itself to be of no value. 

Infectious anemia might be confused with influenza, forage 
poisoning, anthrax and sclerostomiasis. However, a careful 
study of the clinical phenomena coupled with a good history 
(infectious anemia having existed on the premises) will 
usually make the differentiation attainable. 

Course and Prognosis. — The acute form usually leads to 
death as such. It is exceptional to find acute cases going 
over into the chronic type. Recovery is very exceptional and 
death may occur quite unexpectedly. The mortality is over 
90 per cent. Apparent recoveries are often noted. 

Treatment. — A medicinal treatment is without avail. 
Quinine, trypan blue, atoxyl, collargol and arsenic preparations 
were found of no permanent benefit. Absolute rest and very 
intensive feeding will prolong life and cause improvement in 
many cases. Rest in the stable, keeping the temperature 
down with cold baths and enemata, and arsenic administered 
internally have been recommended. This treatment should 
be continued for about four to six weeks. Generally speaking, 
however, the treatment of infectious anemia is very un- 
satisfactory. 



AZOTURIA— PARALYTIC HEMOGLOBINURIA 179 

Prophylaxis. — The prophylaxis consists in destroying all 
animals diseased, segregating the suspects and preventing 
the food and water from contamination with urine. The 
stables should be disinfected and wet pasture lands drained. 
In the purchase of new horses, especially those coming from 
known infected districts, all anemic animals (pale mucous 
membranes, early fatigue at work, increased heart fre- 
quency after slight exercise, etc.), and those showing albumin- 
uria should be rejected or at least placed in quarantine for 
a period of three months. Experiments to produce artificial 
immunity have so far proven unsuccessful. 



AZOTURIA. PARALYTIC HEMOGLOBINURIA. 

Definition. — An acute auto-intoxication of the horse char- 
acterized by degeneration of certain muscles and the presence 
of hemoglobin in the urine. 

Occurrence. — Most frequent in young, well-fed horses accus- 
tomed to regular work. The disease usually follows a tran- 
sient rest of a day or so and appears when the horse is again 
put to work. 

Etiology. — The predisposing causes are heavy feeding dur- 
ing a short (two or three days) rest, the horse being used to 
regular work. Exceptions, however, are noted: Horses are 
sometimes befallen in the stable, and those which have not 
been rested, may be attacked in harness. • More rarely are 
poorly fed, thin horses affected. Occasionally azoturia may 
follow unusually severe exercise as struggling in the hobbles, 
becoming cast in the stall, etc. The disease is more common 
in winter than during the hot months but may occur any time 
of the year. The disease occurs in hot, winterless climates. 
Badly ventilated, dark, damp stables are said to be predis- 
posing causes. 

The exciting cause of azoturia is not known. In all prob- 
ability it will be found to be due to the formation of certain 
toxins which develop either in the muscle or in the digestive 
tract during rest. These toxins degenerate the muscle paren- 
chyma and induce a dissolution of the red blood corpuscles, 



180 DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 

setting their coloring matter free. Cold may assist in that it 
stimulates metabolism. 

Symptoms. — The attack usually occurs without warning 
and within ten to fifteen minutes after leaving the stable and 
while being driven on the street. In rarer instances several 
hours may elapse before symptoms appear. The patient, 
which has been playful and lively perhaps, suddenly becomes 
stiff behind or may knuckle in a hind fetlock. If the horse 
be forced ahead it may fall to the ground, where it generally 
makes vigorous but ineffectual efforts to regain its feet. 
Some cases do not fall, however, but retain their feet; the 
gait is stiff and the hind parts not fully under control. As a 
rule the patient cannot walk and is therefore transported 
to the stable or hospital in an ambulance. When down 
during the first stages of the disease, the patient is restless 
and may struggle desperately to rise. Quite often the head, 
especially around the eye, is contused, the recumbent patient 
recklessly throwing its head against the street or the stall 
partition. While the mind is clear the face shows great 
anxiety, no doubt due to pain. The respirations are increased 
and the whole body dripping with sweat. The muscles of the 
hind parts, especially the crural muscles, the quadriceps 
femoris and the adductors are harder than normal and 
swollen. In some instances the muscles of the anterior limb 
are involved, especially the anconeous group. The affected 
muscles are not particularly sensitive and in a day or two 
become softer and relax. The temperature in mild cases 
is not much influenced after the restlessness subsides. In 
severe cases, however, due to such complications as decubital 
gangrene, great blood dissolution, nephritis, pneumonia, etc., 
the patient may show high fever. The pulse is high during 
the excitement early in the attack, but later becomes slower 
unless complications involving the heart muscle set in. It 
is often 50 to 60 but may reach 80 to 100. 

The urine is often retained, distending the bladder. Where 
drawn it is found turbid and dark, the color varying from that 
of coffee mixed with a little milk to an almost inky blackness. 
It is rich in sediment and if strained becomes clear but does 
not lose the dark coloration. The specific gravity is high, 



AZOTURIA— PARALYTIC HEMOGLOBINURIA 181 

the reaction usually alkaline. Albumin is usually present, 
phosphate, urates and some hippuric acid are generally 
found. 

The appetite is usually retained until serious complications 
appear. If nephritis complicates the case, large quantities of 
albumin appear in the urine and uremic spasms and loss of 
consciousness follow. 

The blood coagulates readily but the clot is not firm and 
the serum limited. The serum is usually red-stained. The 
quantity of hemoglobin present varies greatly. After the 
sweating has subsided and the patient has begun to drink 
freely it will be found slightly below normal. The specific 
gravity of the blood is normal and the number of red cor- 
puscles somewhat reduced. 

Complications. — (a) Decubital gangrene which may cause 
a general infection; (b) hypostatic congestion or even inflam- 
mation of the lungs; (c) uremia following nephritis; (d) 
fracture, especially of the pelvis and limb from falling during 
the disease. 

Course.— In mild cases where the patient retains its feet, 
the duration may be very short, lasting but one or two hours. 
Severe cases usually continue for two or three days when the 
patient begins rapidly to improve or becomes worse and dies. 
While death may occur on the first to third day, the patient 
usually lives a week. General infection is the commonest 
cause of death. In some cases a paralysis of the quadriceps 
femoris, adductors or crurals are sequelae which may delay 
complete recovery for several months. A given patient may 
suffer repeated attacks of azoturia within a few weeks or 
months. 

Diagnosis. — The cardinal symptoms of azoturia are: (1) 
the muscular paralysis; (2) the dark-colored urine. The 
history of the patient should also be taken into consideration. 
The following diseases and conditions resemble it: (a) Colic. 
Confusion with colic would be excusable only in the early 
stages of the attack. There is neither paralysis nor hemo- 
globinuria in colic. 

(6) Injury to the spinal cord. Here the paralysis is com- 
plete behind the lesion; the tail, sphincters, bladder and 



182 DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 

rectum are also paralyzed. The skin posterior to the injury 
is not sensitive to pin pricks. There is no hemoglobinuria. 

(c) Fractures of the pelvis and posterior limb bones may 
sometimes simulate azoturia. This is also true of rupture of 
the Achilles tendon. Only a careful examination of the 
patient will determine these surgical conditions. The history 
and absence of hemoglobinuria are indicative. 

id) Thrombosis of the posterior aorta and its branches may 
resemble azoturia in that the patient falls upon the roadway, 
sweats, etc. However, the attack is of short duration (fifteen 
minutes) when the horse gets up again. By driving it farther 
an attack can be brought on as before. 

Prognosis.— Mild cases which do not "go down" as a rule 
recover. In the lighter horses the prognosis seems more 
favorable than in the heavier . breeds. The greater the 
severity of the attack and the darker the urine, generally 
speaking, the graver the prognosis. When the patient has 
not been properly nursed (frequently turned and deeply 
bedded) decubital sores develop and lead to fatal septicemia. 
Nephritis may cause death in a few cases. The mortality is 
about 80 per cent. There are, however, great variations in 
this regard. Some years the disease seems more severe than 
others. Not a few cases recover from the azoturia but are 
left lame in one or both hind limbs, due to a quadriceps 
paralysis commonly called " azoturia drop." A rapid atrophy 
of the affected muscles takes place from which the patient 
usually recovers in three to twelve months. The crural 
muscles or adductors may be similarly affected. 

Treatment. — There is no specific treatment. The use of 
drugs is secondary to proper dietetics and hygiene. The 
patient should be placed in a well-ventilated, clean, light stall 
and be given plenty of bedding. It is advisable to bolster 
the horse with straw bundles so that it lies on its sternum. 
Every three or four hours, if the patient lies on its side, it 
should be turned over. Where feasible use slings to raise the 
horse up. Even if it cannot rest in the slings more than a 
few minutes at a time, relief is afforded in that a better circu- 
lation of the blood is induced and a change of the bedding 
made possible. In the early stage when the patient is thrash- 



AZOTURIA— PARALYTIC HEMOGLOBINURIA 183 

ing about a good deal, an opiate such as morphin (gr. v 
subcut.), chloral hydrate (§j per os) or cannabis indica (3j 
intravenously) are indicated. The bowels should be moved 
by rectal infusions of water or by the use of arecalin (gr. j 
subcut.) or pilocarpin (gr. iij subcut.). Aloes and salts are 
also employed. The urine should be drawn only if necessary, 
best by pressing the bladder with the hand, or, in case this 
does not suffice, by the use of the catheter. The body should 
be rubbed frequently. Hot applications over the loins and 
croup are recommended. Blisters, however, are not indicated. 
Bleeding is of no therapeutic value, but can do no harm. 
The patient should be given plenty of water in which sul- 
phuric acid (3 vj to a pailful) has been placed. The decubitus 
should be fought off by frequently shifting the patient and 
by the use of astringent strew powders, such as compound 
alum powder, liberally applied. Heart weakness is com- 
bated by using excitants such as oil of camphor (§ ss subcut.) 
or caffein (3j subcut.). Alcohol and black coffee are also 
indicated. For threatening paralyses which may become 
sequelae use strychnin nitrate (gr. \ subcut.). 

The food should consist of bran mashes, green food and 
small quantities of hay. 

Prophylaxis. — Horses accustomed to regular work should 
be exercised when off duty and the food reduced. 



PART VI. 
DISEASES OF METABOLISM. 



CHAPTER I. 
DISEASES OF METABOLISM. 

DIABETES. 

Definition. — Diabetes is a condition marked by habitual 
discharge of an excessive quantity of urine. Two forms of 
diabetes are recognized in veterinary medicine, viz.: (a) 
Diabetes insipidus and (b) diabetes mellitus. 

Diabetes Insipidus. — Diabetes insipidus is a chronic disease 
marked by great thirst and the passage of large quantities 
of urine with no excess of sugar. The urine is of low specific 
gravity. Diabetes insipidus should not be confused with 
polyuria which is transitory and a symptom of some irritation 
to the kidneys produced by spoiled food (mouldy oats), and 
irritant grasses. During the stage of climax in diseases 
associated with high fever the exudates and debris of the 
disease pass out through and irritate the kidneys. In man 
two forms of diabetes insipidus are recognized from an 
etiological standpoint, viz.: Primary or idiopathic which 
appears to have no organic basis, and secondary or sympto- 
matic in which there is evidence of disease of the brain or some 
other organ. Whether or not true diabetes insipidus exists 
in animals is questionable. Polyuria (diuresis), however, does 
occur and, as noted, is a symptom of irritation to the kidneys 
due to irritant foods. It may also attend chronic nephritis 
or appear as the critical polyuria of such infectious diseases 
as pneumonia, pleuritis, etc. 



186 DISEASES OF METABOLISM 

Diabetes Mellitus. — Definition. — Diabetes mellitus is a dis- 
ease marked by the passage of an excessive amount of urine 
containing an excess of grape-sugar. 

Occurrence. — Except in dogs, where it is not common, the 
disease is extremely rare in animals. 

Etiology. — The causes are not well understood. Heredity, 
direct injury, severe mental shock, nervous strain and worry 
are regarded as causes in man. 

Symptoms. — The principal symptoms are a copious secre- 
tion of urine with increased thirst. The patients are languid, 
grow thin but retain a splendid appetite. A chemical analysis 
of the urine will show it to contain 4 to 8 per cent, grape-sugar. 
In the advanced stages cataract (c. diabetica) and ulceration 
of the cornea have been observed. 

Course. — The course of the disease is chronic, lasting for 
months but ending fatally. Death may occur suddenly under 
coma, probably due to an intoxication with /3-oxybutyric acid 
which accumulates in the tissues and blood in large quanti- 
ties and is eliminated in the urine. 

Treatment. — The treatment of diabetes mellitus is largely 
dietary and symptomatic. 

GOUT. PODAGRA. 

Definition. — Gout is a painful constitutional or diathetic 
disease with arthritis and an increase of uric acid in the blood. 
There is a gradual deposition of chalky material (sodium 
biurate) in and about the joints. The disorder may be acute 
or chronic. In animals gout occurs only in birds. 

OBESITY. 

Definition. — Obesity or corpulence is an excessive develop- 
ment of bodily fat occurring principally in the subcutis. It 
may be hereditary. In animals it is usually due to high feed- 
ing and lack of exercise. For edible animals a certain cor- 
pulence is desirable. It is also of value in horses, as it enhances 
their appearance and makes them more salable. 

Obesity is one of the causes of sterility in the female and 



LICKING DISEASE— PICA— ALLOTRIOPHAGY 187 

impotency in the male. In these cases it assumes economic 
importance and requires treatment. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists in reducing the quantity 
and character of the food and allowing the animal plenty of 
exercise. Foods containing large amounts of carbohydrates 
and fats should be fed sparingly, while those consisting largely 
of protein may be allowed. Thyroid gland preparations are 
recommended as idiothyrin (gr. x-xx) . 

LICKING DISEASE. PICA. ALLOTRIOPHAGY. 

Definition. — Licking disease or pica is a perversion of the 
appetite manifested by a craving for unnatural food. The 
afflicted animals will lick, gnaw and even eat objects which 
they would not touch in health. Associated with the symp- 
toms of perverted appetite are nervous nutritive disturbances. 

Occurrence. — Licking disease is usually confined to localities 
or even certain premises. It may sometimes occur enzootic- 
ally. It is most commonly seen among cattle which are kept 
stabled continuously and appears especially during the winter 
months. It is therefore more common in Europe than in 
America. Pica is sometimes a forerunner of osteomalacia. 

Etiology. — The causes of pica are not known. In some out- 
breaks it has been shown to be due to spoiled forage and there- 
fore a form of forage poisoning. As pica is so frequently 
associated with osteomalacia in all probability it may have 
the same causes and may be the prodromal stage of the same 
disease. 

Symptoms. — The first symptoms are those of indigestion. 
The appetite is impaired, rumination suppressed and the 
patient is constipated. The symptoms of perverted appetite 
begin gradually, the cattle licking the walls, partitions and 
even the floor of the stable almost continuously. In some cases 
they gnaw or swallow objects of various nature, including 
indigestible and often loathsome things. Soon the patients 
begin to lose weight, grow thin and eventually emaciate. 
Finally they become cachectic and usually die in a few months. 

Course and Prognosis. — The course is chronic with exacerba- 
tions and remissions extending over several months. If the 



188 DISEASES OF METABOLISM 

hygienic and dietary conditions are not changed the result is 
fatal. 

Treatment. — If taken early and before pronounced symp- 
toms of emaciation appear a change in the food and stable 
arrangement usually suffices to cure. The cattle should be 
turned out on pasture if the season permits. If not the light, 
ventilation and dampness of the stable should be corrected 
and a good, well-balanced ration fed. Much recommended is 
apomorphin (gr. ij-iij) three times daily for three days in 
succession but in some outbreaks it has not given results. 

Prevention. — Keeping the cattle out of doors, especially on 
well-drained pastures and preventing their eating food which 
is spoiled will avert the disease. 

WOOL EATING. 

Definition. — Wool eating is a perversion of the appetite of 
sheep which cause them to eat each other's wool. 

Occurrence. — Wool eating is observed among the finer 
breeds of sheep when in winter quarters. As it causes loss of 
wool and a formation of wool balls in the stomach which may 
lead to death it attains economic importance. 

Etiology. — Wool eating is chiefly due to foods deficient in 
nutritive material. Idleness and habit are no doubt predis- 
posing factors. 

Symptoms. — In a flock of sheep one or two of the lambs 
begin nibbling the wool of their mothers, preferably wool 
which is stained with manure and urine. Soon other lambs 
and finally the adult sheep take up the habit. Usually one 
sheep of the flock is chosen to furnish the wool until the supply 
from this source is exhausted when a new sheep is selected. 
Ultimately nearly all of the members of the flock become wool 
eaters. Ordinarily the sheep remain healthy, although once 
in a while lambs die from an occlusion of the stomach openings 
or intestine. 

Diagnosis. — The disease is easily recognized and differenti- 
ated from itchy skin diseases and the "trotter disease" by 
the fact that the sheep do not gnaw their own fleece, and the 
absence of skin lesions. 



CHAPTER II. 

DISEASES OF METABOLISM AFFECTING PRINCI- 
PALLY THE BONES. 

RACHITIS. RICKETS. 

Definition. — Rachitis or rickets is a disease of young animals 
characterized by faulty calcification of the growing bones and 
impaired nutrition. 

Occurrence. — Rachitis exists in all parts of the world but is 
much more common in Europe than in America. It is chiefly 
seen among young swine and dogs. 

Etiology. — The real cause of rachitis is unknown. Want of 
sunlight, impure air, confinement and lack of exercise are no 
doubt important perdisposing factors. Several theories have 
been advanced to explain the etiology of the disorder. Briefly 
stated they are the following : 

(a) Infection producing a parenchymatous osteitis. The 
sometimes enzootic occurrence, postmortem changes and a 
similarity to the osteitis of phosphorus poisoning lend to 
this theory some support. 

(b) Inanition due to feeding foods wanting in lime such as 
potatoes, sour milk, bran, etc. Rachitis has been experi- 
mentally produced in young animals by feeding them foods 
poor in lime. 

(c) A disturbance in metabolism which induces an increase 
in the elimination of lime from the body and a lessening of 
the amount of lime to the bones. 

Necropsy. — Postmortem changes in rachitis are confined 
largely to the epiphyses. They consist in a chronic hyper- 
emia and inflammation of the bone with abnormal prolifera- 
tion of the cartilages of the epiphyses. The quantity of lime 
contained in the bone is deficient. As a result of the pro- 
liferation the epiphyses become overdeveloped, the cartilage 
formed being relatively too great in proportion to the bone. 
Consequently the epiphyses are enlarged, distorted and the 



190 DISEASES OF METABOLISM OF BONES 

shafts of the bone bent. The periosteum also proliferates, 
forming periosteal enlargements. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of rachitis are those of de- 
formity of the bone such as enlargement in the region of the 
joints and bending of the shafts particularly of the bones of 
the extremities. The patient therefore appears coarse- 
jointed, bow-legged, or on the other hand, cow-hocked or 
knock-kneed. The deformity may also involve the back, 
causing lordosis (sway back) or kyphosis (roach-back) or 
scoliosis (bent sideward). The pelvis may also be deformed 
and the bones of the face thickened and distorted. As usually 
a chronic rhinitis attends the facial deformity there is nasal 
discharge with wheezy respirations. In Germany this form 
of rachitis is spoken of as the "sniffle disease." Along the 
course of the ribs at their cartilaginous unions appears a row 
of nodules. These are spoken of as the "rosary." Occasion- 
ally rickets affects the phalangeal articulations, causing ring- 
bone-like enlargements. The patients usually remain 
stunted, grow pot-bellied and are unthrifty. They are quite 
often stiff and lame. The shedding of the milk-teeth is post- 
poned, teeth diseases are common and eczemas of the skin 
frequent. While some of the young animals retain their 
flesh, as a rule they grow thin and emaciated. 

Prognosis. — The disease is rarely fatal but often leaves the 
patient unthrifty and more or less deformed. 

Treatment. — One of the commonest treatments for rachitis 
in animals is phosphorus. It should be given in the form of 
the oil of phosphorus in small doses (H. & C. gr. J— f and S. 
gr. Y2). For small animals pills (gr. ttoO mav be substituted. 
Powdered carbonate of lime which may be fed with milk is 
also recommended. Usually, unless the disease has advanced 
too far, turning the animal out to pasture and allowing plenty 
of good nutritious food suffice not only to check but cure it. 

OSTEOPOROSIS. OSTEOMALACIA. 

Definition. — Osteoporosis is a disease marked by increased 
softness of the bones so that they become frangible and brittle 
in consequence of a resorption of the lime content. 



OSTEOPOROSIS— OSTEOMALACIA 191 

Occurrence. — The disease is not uncommon among horses in 
certain regions of the United States. Along the river valleys 
of the Middle West numbers of cases occur. On the higher 
ground and especially in the limestone districts it is of rare 
occurrence. It is probably more frequently seen among city 
than country horses. Cattle are also affected, especially dairy 
cows. In Europe the disease seems most common among 
cattle. It is occasionally seen in sheep and swine. Osteo- 
porosis is a disease of adults resembling rachitis in the young 
animals. 

Etiology. — The causes of osteoporosis are not well under- 
stood. It is probably due to infection, as the anatomical 
changes present in the affected bones are of the character of 
infectious inflammation. Predisposing causes are pregnancy, 
excessive lactation in cows, lack of lime in the food and soil, 
darkness, dampness and poor ventilation in the stables. 

Necropsy. — The postmortem changes consist in an inflam- 
matory hyperemia with decalcification and softening of the 
bone and marked dilatation of the Haversian canals. The 
bones affected are brittle and fracture spontaneously. They 
are also enlarged, extremely light in weight, the cortical sub- 
stance abnormally thin and the medullary cavity greatly 
increased. The medulla appears as a reddish gelatinous mass. 
The bones chiefly involved are the pelvis, femur, facial bones 
and mandible. However, it may affect any bone of the 
skeleton. Healed fractures are not uncommonly noted. 

Symptoms. — While in some cases the affection of the bones 
is preceded by digestive disturbances and symptoms of viti- 
ated appetite ("licking disease") , most commonly the first 
symptoms are disturbance in locomotion, the patient becom- 
ing lame or stiff and experiencing difficulty in getting up or 
lying down. If the maxilla? are involved there may be diffi- 
culty in mastication. Quite commonly the horse is thought 
to be suffering from rheumatism which usually affects the 
stifle or fetlock-joints. After rest the symptom of lameness 
may disappear to recur again, but in a different joint, when 
the animal is returned to work. In other cases the owner 
complains of the horse eating slowly and losing flesh and 
requests that its teeth be dressed. In advanced cases a 



192 DISEASES OF METABOLISM OF BONES 

prominent symptom is enlargement of one or both rami of 
the lower jaw or a bulging of the bones of the face ("big 
head")- Later the patient becomes more and more emaci- 
ated, the gait stiff, the flank tucked and finally remains 
recumbent and unable to regain its feet without assistance. 
Spontaneous pelvic and limb bone fractures are common in 
cattle and goats and are not rare in horses, especially if cast 
for an operation (castration) when fracture of the femur or 
spinal column often results. More rarely the Achilles tendon 
tears loose from its attachment to the os. calcis. 

Diagnosis. — Until enlargements of the bone or spontaneous 
fractures occur the diagnosis is difficult. In the horse in all 
cases of obscure lameness resembling rheumatism, osteoporosis 
should be thought of. In cattle pica or licking disease is a 
common forerunner. Later symptoms of painful mastication, 
emaciation, difficulty in rising from a recumbent position, 
stiffness of gait, tucked-up abdomen and enlargement of the 
maxillae appear which are indicative of the disorder. In 
districts where the disease is enzootic obviously the diagnosis 
is not so difficult as when a sporadic case is met in a section 
where osteoporosis is rare. 

Prognosis. — Advanced cases are hopeless and should be 
destroyed. If able to walk they are often rested, which 
ameliorates the condition, and sold, but usually when returned 
to work they again grow worse. Sometimes transplanting 
the case to a district where the disease is not enzootic is fol- 
lowed by good results. The better the care and food and the 
lighter the work, as a rule, the longer the patients last. 

Course. — The course is chronic and extends from three 
months to two years from the time the diagnosis is made. 

Treatment. — The principal thing in the treatment is to 
change the environment and food of the patient. Where it is 
not possible to remove the animal to another district feeding 
alfalfa, alfalfa feed and molasses and alfalfa hay have been 
of great benefit. Medicinal treatment is of little value. 
Phosphate of lime in the form of bone meal is useful. Or 
phosphorus (gr. J-f ) in oil is recommended. For symptoms 
of "licking disease" in cattle the hydrochlorid of apomorphin 
(gr. ij-iij subcutaneously) is advised. 



PART VII. 
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION. 



MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM. 

Definition. — Muscular rheumatism is a form of myositis. 

Occurrence. — Muscular rheumatism is not common in ani- 
mals. In large animals it is most frequent in horses and 
cattle. 

Etiology. — The causes of muscular rheumatism are un- 
known. Cold and dampness combined are important but 
probably only predisposing factors. In all probability the 
immediate cause is either an infection or an intoxication, 
although the absence of fever and localization in individual 
muscles rather speaks against this theory. 

Necropsy. — On necropsy the muscles attacked are hyper- 
emia hemorrhagic, and show serous exudate and cellular 
infiltration. In some cases there is cloudy swelling and fatty 
degeneration of the muscle fibers. In chronic cases a prolif- 
eration of connective tissue occurs in the muscles attacked. 

Symptoms. — Characteristic of rheumatism is a suddenly 
appearing painful condition of certain muscles which usually 
follows exposure to cold. There is a tendency for the pain 
to shift from one muscular group to another. The inflamma- 
tion disappears often as suddenly and mysteriously as it 
came but there is always a tendency to relapses. On palpa- 
tion the affected muscles feel tense and are very sensitive. 
Depending upon the location of the inflammation different 
forms of rheumatism are distinguished clinically: 

(a) Shoulder rheumatism (omalgia) which affects the 
biceps, brachiocephalic and the supra- and infraspinati 
muscles causing in horses shoulder lameness of the swinging- 
leg type. 
13 



194 DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION 

(b) Lumbago. Rheumatism of the muscles of the loins, 
particularly of the psoas group, producing paraplegia in the 
horse characterized by stiffness of the back and weakness or 
paralysis of the hind parts. 

(c) Torticollis. A rheumatic torticollis (myalgia cervicalis) 
produces a stiffness and bending of the neck. The splenius, 
trapezius and brachiocephalic muscles are principally 
involved. 

(d) Intercostal rheumatism which produces pleurodynia. 
Pleurodynia in horses frequently follows long railway 

journeys. It is characterized by dyspnea and sensitiveness of 
the intercostal muscles. 

Among other locations for rheumatism may be mentioned 
the region of the hip (hip lameness), masseter muscles (dis- 
turbance in mastication) and abdominal muscles (constipa- 
tion) . Sometimes muscular rheumatism is generalized, affect- 
ing practically all of the muscles of the body (polymyositis) . 
If the case is severe and attended by fever, death may ensue. 
Frequently as the result of chronic rheumatism the animal is 
left permanently lame in the shoulder or back. 

Treatment. — Rheumatism is usually treated by local appli- 
cations such as massaging the affected muscles with soap 
liniment or by applying heat. To relieve intense pain nar- 
cotics are useful. Preparations of salicylic acid or salicylate 
of soda (3ij) are of some value. For chronic rheumatic 
shoulder lameness the following prescription is recommended : 

1$ — Veratrin gr. vij 

Alcohol diluti 5ij 

M. f. sol. 

Sig. — Inject 5 c.c. every twelve hours subcut. over region of shoulder. 



ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM. 

Definition. — Articular rheumatism is undoubtedly an in- 
fectious disease. It affects the joints, producing in them a 
serous or serofibrinous inflammation. 

Etiology. — While the causes are not known very probably 
staphylococci and streptococci are the chief offenders. Cold 
is never more than a predisposing cause. The germs enter 



ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM 195 

the blood either through the throat (in man the tonsils) or 
in cattle through the puerperal uterine mucosa. The post- 
mortem lesions are those of a serous and serofibrinous 
arthritis which in chronic cases develops into an arthritis 
chronica deformans. 

Symptoms. — Articular rheumatism is rare in animals as 
compared with man. Cattle are frequently attacked, horses 
rarely. The most important symptoms are found in the 
joints, tendon sheaths, and the heart. The joint symptoms 
usually begin suddenly with a painful, hot, swelling of 
one or more joints accompanied by severe lameness or ina- 
bility to stand. The joints most commonly affected are the 
stifle, fetlock, hock and front knee. One peculiarity of the 
arthritis is the tendency to shift suddenly from one joint to 
another and the occurrence of relapses. The tendon sheaths 
in the neighborhood of the affected joints are frequently 
involved, particularly the sheaths of the perforans and per- 
foratus, a painful, hot, fluctuating swelling appearing along 
the course of the tendons. Endocarditis is a common com- 
plication and is therefore very characteristic of this form of 
rheumatism. Through an ulcerous endocarditis death may 
occur suddenly. Usually, however, it appears as a verrucous 
endocarditis, leading to valvular disease of the heart. The 
temperature is elevated, appetite and rumination suppressed, 
which, together with the fever and pain, lead to rapid 
emaciation. Rare complications are metastatic pleuritis, 
peritonitis and pericarditis. 

Diagnosis. — Articular rheumatism may be confused with 
any other arthritis. Most commonly it is mistaken for trau- 
matic arthritis. However, in these cases, unless suppurative, 
there is no fever and no general disturbance. Tubercular 
arthritis, which is more common, affects only one joint and 
is usually associated with tuberculosis of other organs. In 
adults osteomalacia and in young animals rachitis should be 
thought of. Here, however, other symptoms of these dis- 
eases are also present, the process is less acute, does not shift 
and usually several animals are similarly attacked in a herd. 

Course. — While some cases heal in two or three weeks there 
is always a tendency to relapse. The course in articular 



196 DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION 

rheumatism in animals is usually chronic and the prognosis 
unfavorable. The disease generally lasts several months with 
exacerations and remissions. Many of the patients unable to 
stand die of decubitus. Others which recover from the acute 
attacks are left with an incurable deforming arthritis with 
contracture and anchylosis of the joint and great muscular 
atrophy. 

Treatment. — As a specific treatment for articular rheuma- 
tism salicylate of soda has been highly recommended. It 
should be given in very large doses. In the horse a daily dose 
may be as high as three ounces, usually given in one-ounce 
doses, three times daily. Other remedies are acetanilid (§j) 
and salol (§j). Local applications of heat to joints relieve 
pain and assist somewhat in resorption. Antiphlogistin is 
useful in this regard where it can be applied. 

TRICHINOSIS. 

Definition. — A disease of swine and more rarly of other 
animals due to the presence of the larvae of the Trichina 
spiralis. This parasite is harbored by swine in both the adult 
and larval forms. The adult worms live in the bowels, the 
larvae in the muscles. 

Occurrence. — Trichina are very common in swine. Probably 
5 per cent, of American hogs harbor the parasite. Occasion- 
ally outbreaks of trichinosis occur in man from eating the 
flesh of the hog which has not been thoroughly cooked. 

Mode of Infestation.- — Swine are generally infested by eating 
rats which very commonly harbor trichina or the carcasses 
or offal of swine from the slaughter-house. In a few isolated 
instances horses have been infected through rats. Mice can 
also be the host of trichina. In the life-cycle of this parasite 
four stages of development are recognized : 

(a) The larvae which develop in the intestine into sexually 
mature males and females. One week after infestation the 
females bear living embryos. 

(b) The embryos wander into the muscles, passing through 
the chyle vessels into the thoracic duct and from there through 
the bloodvessels to the muscles. 



HOG MEASLES— CYSTICERCUS CELLULOSE 197 

(c) The embryos in about one month become encapsuled, 
which process lasts about three months. 

(d) A calcification of the encapsuled trichina begins in 
from three to six months and lasts about eighteen "months. 
Encapsuled trichina can live for years in the muscle. They 
produce infestation when ingested; unencapsuled trichina 
are killed in the stomach. The favorite seats of trichina are 
the muscular portion of the diaphragm, the larynx and 
tongue, abdominal and intercostal muscles. 

Symptoms. — Symptoms of trichinosis in swine from natural 
infestation have not been observed. From artificial infesta- 
tion the symptoms resulting are diarrhea and colic at the end 
of the first week, and stiffness, paralysis of the limbs, pruritus, 
difficult mastication, dysphagia, dyspnea, hoarseness, and 
edematous swellings in the second or third week. Usually, 
however, these cases fully recover in from four to six weeks. 

Treatment. — No treatment is of any avail once the worms 
have reached the muscles. As a prevention the hog yards 
should be kept free from rats and mice. 

HOG MEASLES. CYSTICERCUS CELLULOSE. 

Definition. — Cysticercus cellulosse is the juvenile form of the 
tapeworm Taenia solium of man. Young swine are infected 
by eating the proglottides gathered from human feces. The 
eggs are digested in the stomach and the six hooked embryos 
are set free after which they pass through the bowel wall and 
via blood reach the muscles where after three months they 
form cysts. The favorite seats of the cysts are in the abdom- 
inal muscles, diaphragm and tongue. The cysts are pea- to 
bean-sized, dull white in color, each having an inverted head 
provided with four suckers and a double row of hooks. 
Measles is a rare disease among American swine. 

Symptoms. — During life symptoms are rarely observed, 
although in isolated instances severe brain disturbance, 
blindness, paralysis of the tongue, pleuritis and peritonitis 
have been noted. If the tongue is involved the cysts may be 
seen on its ventral surface. 



198 DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION 

CYSTICERCUS INERMIS. 

Definition. — Cysticercus inermis is the juvenile form of the 
Taenia saginata of man. Cattle become infested by ingesting 
the proglottides of the tapeworm found in human feces. The 
favorite seat of the cyst is in the masseter muscles. These 
parasites cause no symptoms in cattle. 

MIESCHER'S TUBULES. 

Definition. — These are sarcosporidia (protozoa) that appear 
in colonies surrounded by a sack-like membrane. They occur 
in the striated muscles, forming elongated sacs which contain 
a number of kidney- or bean-shaped bodies (sporozoites). 
The favorite seats are the mouth, throat and esophagus. 
They produce no clinical symptoms. In rare instances the 
sac surrounding them may rupture and lead to an invasion 
of the muscles, producing a myositis. This occurs usually in 
the tongue ; or they may induce neof ormations in the lumbar 
muscles. 



PART VIII. 
DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. NEPHRITIS. 

While from a pathological standpoint a great many differ- 
ent varieties of nephritis may be distinguished, from the 
clinical side four forms are recognized in animals : 

(a) Acute parenchymatous nephritis. 

(b) Chronic interstitial nephritis. 

(c) Purulent nephritis. 

(d) Pyelonephritis. 

Acute Parenchymatous Nephritis.— Definition. — An inflam- 
mation of the functional tissue of the kidneys. 

Occurrence. — This form of nephritis is the most common in 
animals. It may be primary and due to the action of toxic 
substances or perhaps cold on the kidneys, or secondary to 
infectious diseases. 

Etiology. — Irritants, such as cantharides, mustard, col- 
chicum, carbolic acid, gasoline, mercury, cottonseed meal, 
fungi, free hemoglobin, etc., are the commonest causes of 
primary nephritis. Cold is probably also a cause or at least 
a refrigeration of the body can predispose an animal to neph- 
ritis. Most cases of nephritis in animals, however, are second- 
ary to such infectious diseases as influenza, hog cholera, 
glanders or tuberculosis. It frequently complicates azoturia, 
probably due to the action of the free hemoglobin on the 
kidney. Nephritis may further be due to an inflammation of 
the renal pelvis or urinary bladder (pyelitis, cystitis). In 
rare instances nephritis may be caused by traumatism or still 
more rarely attends rheumatism. Diffuse skin diseases such 



200 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

as eczema and mange may cause nephritis. Obstructive 
icterus may also be a cause. 

Symptoms. — The principal symptom of acute parenchyma- 
tous nephritis is albuminuria. The albumin content may 
reach several per cent. Usually the quantity of urine voided 
is greatly diminished (oliguria), the specific gravity high, 
color dark, and, as a rule, it is rich in sediment. An examina- 
tion of the urine under the microscope shows it to contain 
tube casts, renal epithelium, white or red corpuscles and in 
some cases blood (hematuria). Later symptoms of dropsy 
appear, such as edema of the ventral portion of the abdomen, 
scrotum, and legs. In some instances the patient will appear 
stiff, stand with its legs spread apart, or, on the other hand, 
drawn up under the body and the back is held arched. Palpa- 
tion of the kidneys through the rectum (small horses) causes 
the animal to evince pain. Pressure over the kidneys from 
the outside rarely produces symptoms. The general condition 
of the patient is disturbed in that it seems stupid, weak, has 
no appetite and shows increase in temperature. In some cases 
the urine is voided frequently in small quantities, often only 
a few drops dribbling away with considerable straining 
(stranguria). These symptoms are most commonly seen in 
diffuse nephritis the result of poisoning with gasoline, turpen- 
tine, or cantharides. In stallions there may be a partial 
erection of the penis (priapism) from the urethral irritation. 
In some instances there is a total suppression of urine 
for as long as a week (anuria). In fatal cases toward 
the end symptoms of uremia appear which are recog- 
nized by convulsions, coma, and usually subnormal tem- 
perature. 

Diagnosis. — A diagnosis can be made positively only by a 
chemical and microscopic examination of the urine for al- 
bumin, the presence of tube casts, renal epithelium, red and 
white corpuscles, and even blood. 

Course. — Cases of nephritis secondary to infectious dis- 
eases usually disappear with the recovery of the infectious 
disease, healing occurring in about fourteen days. Cases 
which end fatally, as noted, terminate under symptoms of 
uremia. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS— NEPHRITIS 201 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is always doubtful. While ap- 
parently severe cases do recover, milder ones often grow 
worse and lead to death. When oliguria or complete anuria 
persists and the chemical and microscopic findings continue to 
show evidence of further kidney destruction the prognosi s is bad . 

Treatment. — Care should be given to regulate the diet, 
avoiding feeding acrid and irritant substances. Herbivorous 
animals should be allowed grass, hay, and roots rather than 
intensive foods like grain. When available milk forms a good 
article of food. Plenty of water should be supplied the 
patient, as it tends to flush out the obstructed tubules. 
Linseed tea is recommended for its soothing effect. The indi- 
cations are to relieve the kidneys as much as possible by util- 
izing the skin and bowels to rid the body of waste products. 
Among the drugs diuretics are indicated, such as acetate 
of potash (5ij-iv) or potassium nitrate (5ij-iv). Dia- 
phoretics also assist, such as pilocarpin (gr. iij-vj). Keep- 
ing the patient in a warm place, hot baths, or blankets assist 
in producing sweat. To further relieve the kidneys laxatives 
should be given. When the patient shows symptoms of 
uremia narcotics such as morphin (gr. iij-v) or bromids 
are useful. 

Chronic Interstitial Nephritis. — Definition. — A form of in- 
flammation of the kidneys which attacks principally the inter- 
stitial connective tissue. The chronic fibrous inflammation 
leads to a contraction and hardening of the kidney, the 
surface of which becomes rough, uneven, covered with numer- 
ous projections and depressions, leading to what is known as 
granular kidney. Within the kidney are numerous centres of 
connective tissue. The cortex is contracted, causing the 
tubular portions to be drawn nearer the surface of the organ. 
This is called sclerotic kidney (nephritis fibrosa multiple). 
When the sclerosis is diffuse the organ is greatly increased in 
size, is of semicartilaginous consistency and of white color 
(nephritis fibrosa diffusa) . 

Occurrence. — Chronic interstitial nephritis is less common 
in animals than in man. It does occur, however, in horses and 
occasionally in cattle. In swine it is rare, as these animals 
are usually killed when young. 



202 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

Etiology. — This form of nephritis usually develops from the 
acute parenchymatous, the causes of which have been given. 
In the horse it may have an embolic origin emanating from 
the worm aneurysm in the anterior mesenteric trunk. In 
cattle it sometimes results from pyelitis. In man, sclerosis of 
the arteries is a common cause. 

Symptoms. — The principal symptom of chronic interstitial 
nephritis, contrary to the acute and chronic parenchymatous 
nephritis, is an increase in the quantity of urine voided by the 
patient (polyuria). The urine is of low specific gravity 
(1001 to 1010) and contains little albumin, few tube casts, 
and renal epithelium. Generally associated with the polyuria 
are symptoms of hypertrophy of the heart (see this), which is 
later followed by dilatation of the organ, leading to symptoms 
of dropsy, such as anasarca, hydrothorax, hydropericardium, 
and ascites. In some cases uremia may follow with convul- 
sions and coma. In rare instances blindness results from 
albuminuria retinitis. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is bad, as the condition is gener- 
ally incurable. As the efficiency of the patient (horses) falls 
below the cost of keeping many of them are destroyed or 
traded off. 

Treatment. — While in man a palliative treatment which will 
prolong life is indicated (nitroglycerin, digitalis, strychnin) 
in animals this does not pay. Otherwise the treatment is 
the same as for acute parenchymatous nephritis. 

Purulent Nephritis. — Definition. — A suppurative inflamma- 
tion of the kidneys leading to diffuse pus infiltration or to 
abscess formation in the organ. 

Occurrence. — This form of nephritis is usually secondary to 
such diseases as strangles, pyemia, wound infections, etc. 

Etiology. — The causes are pus-producing bacteria which are 
carried to the kidney either through the blood or come from 
the bladder or pelvis of the kidney through the urine. Speci- 
fically staphylococci and streptococci are the principal causes. 
These bacteria produce in the organ either a disseminated 
purulent nephritis in the form of large numbers of small 
abscesses, found principally in the cortex (nephritis punctata), 
or a few isolated large abscesses (pyonephrosis). In cattle 



INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS— NEPHRITIS 203 

this form of nephritis is most commonly a sequela to puerperal 
septicemia and in the horse to strangles, pyemia and more 
rarely purpura. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of diffuse purulent nephritis 
are usually so vague that a diagnosis cannot be made during 
life. Where symptoms occur that are at all characteristic 
both kidneys are involved. The symptoms are very like 
those of acute parenchymatous nephritis (in the horse colic 
attacks, arching and rigidity of the back, shortening of the 
stride in one or both hind limbs, etc.). Cases are recorded 
where the enlarged kidney produced swelling in the lumbar 
region. On microscopic examination pus cells may be found. 
Albuminuria is also present. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is grave, as sooner or later, if 
both kidneys are involved, death ensues (uremia) . 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment in animals is of no value 
as far as producing healing is concerned. In man the removal 
of the kidney (nephrectomy) is practised. 

Pyelonephritis. — Definition. — Pyelitis is an inflammation of 
the pelvis of the kidney. Pyelonephritis is a combination of 
pyelitis and nephritis. 

Occurrence. — In Europe pyelonephritis is common in cattle 
(cows). A few cases have been recorded in swine. Statistics 
for this country in regard to the prevalency of the disease are 
wanting. 

Etiology. — Pyelonephritis may develop in one of two ways: 
(a) As a bacterial disease which is the most common form in 
cattle, or (6) it may be caused by stones or concrements which 
form in the pelvis of the kidney. A rare cause of pyelo- 
nephritis is the giant palisade-worm, Eustrongylus gigas. 

Bacterial Pyelonephritis of Cattle. — As noted this is 
the most common inflammation of the kidney in the ox. It is 
probably due to more than one microorganism (streptococci, 
colon bacilli, staphylococci), but the corynebacillus renalis is 
the chief offender. The microorganisms enter the kidney 
either by the blood or the urine. The bacteria which produce 
pyelonephritis cause a variety of pathological changes in the 
kidney. As a rule there are present in combination dilatation 
of the pelvis of the kidney, which is usually found filled with 



204 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

pus and its walls ulcerated, necrosis of the papilla, diffuse 
purulent nephritis with abscesses in the cortex and chronic 
interstitial nephritis. 

Symptoms. — Most cases of pyelonephritis occur in cows fol- 
lowing parturition. This is especially true when injuries have 
occurred in the uterus or vagina or where retention of the 
afterbirth has followed. It may, however, originate independ- 
ent of parturition. In sucklings infection through the navel 
can occur and in male animals it has resulted from primary 
abscesses. There is also a probability that the infection may 
be introduced via the digestive tract. The clinical symptoms 
are usually rather indefinite. In a cow which has calved with 
difficulty or suffered from retention of the placenta the con- 
dition of the animal grows bad, the appetite and rumination 
suppressed, the patient losing flesh, showing fever, colicky 
pains, irregular gait, frequent urination and sometimes 
strangury. Pressure over the sacrum causes pain and the 
tail and buttocks are soiled with pus which flows from the 
vagina. The urine in rare instances remains clear, but is 
usually cloudy. On rectal examination the bladder is found 
partially filled, the ureters dilated and sometimes the kidneys 
enlarged, sensitive and fluctuating. The chemical analysis of 
the urine shows albumin and free ammonia. Under the 
microscope pus cells, blood, crystals of triple phosphates, 
and renal epithelial cells are found. With the Gram stain 
large numbers of bacteria— the corynebacilli — are found 
generally arranged in clumps. As cystitis is a common com- 
plication, bladder epithelium will also be found in the urine. 

Diagnosis. — Diagnosis depends upon the examination of 
the urine and the determination of the corynebacillus which 
is usually present. The rectal findings, the fact that the urine 
contains pus, and the failing of the patient after parturition, 
point to pyelonephritis in cows. 

Prognosis.- — Prognosis is bad, therefore it is advisable to 
make the diagnosis as early as possible so that the animal may 
be slaughtered. 

Calculous Pyelonephritis (Kidney Stones). — Defini- 
tion. — This is an inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney due 
to the presence of renal stones (nephrolithiasis). The stones 



UREMIA 205 

consist of carbonate of lime, oxalate of lime, silicates and phos- 
phate salts. Renal stones probably develop from the deposit 
of salts around a nucleus such as mucous epithelium or even 
bacteria. They induce in the kidneys various changes such 
as pyelitis or pyelonephritis and the so-called hydronephrosis. 

Occurrence. — While kidney stones are rarer in animals than 
in man, they are seen occasionally in horses and cattle. They 
also occur among sheep and swine. In sheep they commonly 
result from the feeding of root crops, such as potatoes, sugar 
beets, beets, etc. In some instances among sheep, kidney 
stones appear enzootically. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are rather vague. Very often 
they produce no symptoms whatever. In other cases the 
patient suffers from renal colic, bloody urine, partial or total 
suppression of urine, and even uremia. The urine passed is 
sometimes bloody or may be cloudy from pus. Sometimes 
sand or grit is passed, which adheres to the hairs around the 
sheath opening. On rectal examination the symptoms of 
pyelonephritis may be determined, and occasionally a slight 
crepitation can be felt, due to the movement of the stones 
against one another. 

Treatment. — The treatment in animals is not successful, 
and operative procedure, except in dogs, is hardly advisable 
on account of the risk. 

UREMIA. 

Definition. — A poisoning of the blood with the constituents 
of the urine. 

Occurrence. — Uremia can occur in any condition in which 
the normal discharge of urine is impeded. 

Etiology. — Uremia may result from nephritis, kidney 
tumors, kidney stones, obstruction of the ureters, bladder, 
or urethra, or paralysis of the bladder. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms usually follow kidney disease 
where there has been complete retention of urine. The 
patients show spasms, weakness, coma, and subnormal 
temperature. The respirations are generally retarded, and 
the sweat may have a urinous odor, especially after rupture 



206 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

of the bladder. The symptoms, as a rule, occur periodically, 
and very often lead to death, which may follow the first 
convulsive attack or after repeated attacks. 

Treatment. — Unless the cause of the retention can be re- 
moved, treatment is useless. The remedies advised in acute 
nephritis (diuretics, diaphoretics, laxatives) maybe employed. 

CONGESTION OF THE KIDNEYS (HYPEREMIA). 

Definition. — Hyperemia of the kidneys may be either 
arterial or venous. Arterial hyperemia is the first stage of 
nephritis (see this). It is caused by such irritant drugs as 
cantharides, turpentine, or gasoline; acrid plants, mouldy 
food, sea water, etc., can also produce it. Venous congestion 
is usually due to organic heart disease and more rarely to 
pulmonary emphysema. 

Symptoms. — The principal symptom of arterial congestion 
is polyuria, with its attending increased thirst. Sometimes 
the patient shows a stiff gait and sensitiveness over the kid- 
neys. In venous congestion due to the fact that less arterial 
blood flows through the kidneys, oliguria occurs. Albumin- 
uria may also be a symptom, due to the fact that the 
nutrition of the renal epithelial cells suffers. 

Diagnosis. — Arterial congestion can be differentiated from 
diabetes insipidus only by the fact that it is temporary 
while the later is chronic. Diabetes mellitus, on account of 
its extreme rarity in animals, need hardly be taken into 
account. Venous hyperemia is differentiated from nephritis 
by the urine, which contains very little albumin and no cell 
elements. The patient is at the same time suffering from 
some chronic heart or lung disease. 

Treatment. — Arterial congestion disappears as soon as the 
causes are removed. Otherwise the treatment is similar to 
that of acute nephritis. Venous hyperemia can rarely be 
removed, as a basic disease is usually incurable. 

RENAL HEMORRHAGE. 

Etiology.— Hemorrhage from the kidneys may result from 
traumatism or the worm aneurysm, or it may be embolic in 



HYDRONEPHROSIS— CYSTIC KIDNEY 207 

origin. It is quite often fatal in horses, especially when 
traumatic. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are hematuria, blood-tube casts 
in the urine, and general anemia. 

AMYLOID KIDNEY. 

Amyloid kidney is usually associated with chronic suppura- 
tive conditions such as are seen in strangles, liver abscesses, 
etc. It is of no clinical importance in veterinary medicine. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are very vague (anemia, 
cachexia, albuminuria without tube casts). 

KIDNEY TUMORS. 

The kidneys are the seat of several kinds of tumors, such 
as sarcoma, carcinoma, adenoma, melanoma, etc. They can 
rarely be diagnosed clinically. Occasionally they may be 
palpated through the rectum. If they produce symptoms 
they are hematuria, uremia, emaciation, and intermittent 
lameness from compression and thrombosis of the posterior 
aorta. 

Treatment. — Treatment is of no use except in dogs, where 
occasionally nephrectomy is practised. 

HYDRONEPHROSIS. CYSTIC KIDNEY. 

Etiology. — This condition is found frequently in edible 
animals. Cystic kidney is usually due to kidney stones, 
especially in sheep, where 80 per cent, of the cases are due to 
this cause. In the hog it is said to result from a congenital 
defect in the opening of the ureters, which are placed too 
low at their point of entrance into the bladder, periodically 
preventing the urine from escaping. 

Symptoms. — Cystic kidney rarely produces symptoms dur- 
ing life, although very rarely a kidney may become so en- 
larged as to distend the abdomen in swine. Occasionally in 
horses and cattle the condition may be palpated per rectum. 

Treatment. — Treatment is unavailing. 



208 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 

HEMATURIA. 

Definition. — By hematuria is meant blood in the urine. 
This is a symptom of several diseases of the kidney, bladder, 
and urethra. It is also associated with infectious diseases 
(purpura, anthrax), poisoning (turpentine, gasoline) and 
blood diseases (leukemia) . 

HEMOGLOBINURIA. 

Definition. — The presence of hemoglobin without blood in 
the urine. It is a symptom of several different diseases 
(azoturia, Texas fever, etc.). 

PARASITES IN THE KIDNEY. 

Eustrongylus Gigas. — This parasite is rare in horses and 
cattle. It is a large worm about the diameter of a lead-pencil, 
varying in length, depending upon the sex, from 13 cm. to 1 m., 
the male being the smaller. It is not known how the worm 
enters the pelvis of the kidney. It produces a suppurative 
pyelonephritis, and eventually total destruction of the kid- 
ney, which is transformed into a thick-walled sac contain- 
ing pus and the coiled worm. In large animals the symptoms 
are very vague, as usually but one kidney is involved. 

A diagnosis can be made only by finding the brown-colored, 
oval eggs, showing on the surface numerous round depressions. 
The worm may occasionally pass through the ureters to the 
bladder, where it produces cystitis. Treatment is not satis- 
factory in large animals. 

Other Parasites in the Kidneys. — The larvae of the scleros- 
tomum are found in the kidneys of the horse, where they give 
rise to hemorrhage from the renal arteries. In swine the 
Stephanurus dentatum is not uncommon in the fat (leaf lard) 
surrounding the kidney, and more rarely in the kidney itself. 
It is usually found on slaughter. Cysticercus cellulosse has 
been found in the kidney of pigs; Echinococcus polymorphous 
in the kidney of sheep. 



PART IX. 
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



CHAPTER I. 
DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 

Two groups of symptoms characterize brain and meningeal 
lesions, viz. : (A) General, and (B) focal or topical symptoms. 
The general symptoms result from a diffuse disorder of the 
brain cortex with increased intracranial pressure, or they 
may arise from increased intracranial pressure alone. The 
focal symptoms result from lesions which involve well- 
defined fields, centres, or tracts of the brain, the functions 
of which are interfered with. Both groups of symptoms can 
occur simultaneously or each independently of the other. 

(A) General brain symptoms. These consist in: (1) Dis- 
turbed consciousness. This is manifested by stupor, dulness, 
sleepiness, sopor, or even coma; vertigo and syncope may 
occur. On the other hand, there may be excitement, rest- 
lessness, maniacal or rabiform manifestations. (2) Disturb- 
ance in respirations. The respirations are affected in fre- 
quency and rhythm, producing in some instances a change 
in the mode of breathing (Cheyne-Stokes, Biot respirations, 
etc.). (3) Disturbance in the manner of prehension and 
mastication of food. The appetite may be impaired, lost, 
or vitiated, and food and water are taken in an unphysio- 
logical manner. (4) Abnormal muscular movements. These 
may be expressed in general tonoclonic spasms (epileptoid) , 
forced movements, or there may be paralysis (general, hemi- 
14 



210 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

plegia, etc.). (5) Changes in the pulse. Variations in the 
frequency and rhythm of the pulse are observed. Quite 
often the pulse is slow, due to the effect of increased intra- 
cranial pressure upon the vagus. If excitement, fever, or 
heart weakness be present, however, the pulse will be fast 
and irregular. Marked variations in the frequency and 
rhythm of the pulse are noted in acute meningitis. (6) Eye 
symptoms. These are manifested by contraction or, on the 
other hand, marked dilatation of the pupils. One pupil may 
be dilated, its fellow contracted. Rolling of the eyeballs 
(nystagmus) and amaurosis are not unrarely observed. (7) 
Tendon, skin, and pupil reflexes. The tendon reflexes may 
be increased, especially in chronic brain diseases, if the 
inhibitory action of the cortex is out of function. The 
reflexes may be reduced in some acute brain diseases where 
the inhibitory function of the cortex becomes on the contrary 
increased. Where coma is present both the skin reflex and 
pupil reactions become nil and the tendon reflex (patellar, 
Achilles) reduced to a minimum. 

(B) Topical or focal symptoms. The knowledge of topical 
symptoms in animals is very limited. Localized nervous 
diseases in animals are, however, much rarer than in man. 
Topical symptoms produce, generally speaking, sensory or 
motor disturbances. 

The sensory disturbance consists in (a) decreased sensi- 
bility or hypesthesia ; (b) absence of sensibility or anesthesia; 
(c) increased sensibility or hyperesthesia. 

The motor disturbance induces (a) spasms which may be 
clonic or tonic; (b) involuntary (forced or unphysiological) 
movements; (c) disturbance of the muscular sense, causing 
loss of coordination, unphysiological attitudes, and irregulari- 
ties in gait, or paralysis, which may be complete or partial 
(paresis), unilateral (hemiplegia), bilateral (paraplegia), or 
in a single organ or part (monoplegia). Hemiplegia has its 
origin in the brain, paraplegia in the spinal cord, and mono- 
plegia may have a central (brain) origin, or may be due to 
disorder of peripheral nerves. 



ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES 211 

ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. 

Etiology. — Where the body has suffered a sudden loss of a 
quantity of blood, or where a rush of blood from the brain to 
other organs occurs, an acute anemia of the brain results. 
Examples of the latter instance are furnished when large 
amounts of exudate or transudate are removed too rapidly 
from a body cavity (hydrothorax, ascites) or large amounts 
of gas from the bowels. Acute heart weakness or a general 
dilatation of the bloodvessels as is sometimes associated 
with severe infections and many poisonings will also produce 
acute anemia. 

A chronic anemia of the brain accompanies general anemia, 
specific diseases of the blood (leukemia), increased intra- 
cranial pressure, and very rarely results from compression or 
thrombosis of the carotids. 

Symptoms. — Acute anemia of the brain produces dis- 
turbance in consciousness. The animal walks with a stagger- 
ing gait, the patient finally falling to the ground as if lifeless. 
Vomiting animals may vomit. The mucous membranes are 
very pale, the pupils dilated, the pulse rapid and thread-like, 
the respirations either slow and deep or accelerated and super- 
ficial. In severe cases the syncope may be interrupted by 
convulsions and the death of the patient. In milder cases 
the animal returns gradually to consciousness, remains for 
a time stupid and languid, and with a tendency to re- 
lapses. 

Chronic brain anemia usually produces no symptoms, as 
the condition develops gradually, the brain adapting itself 
to it. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis varies with the cause. In acute 
cases as long as the pupil reacts to light recovery is probable. 
On the other hand, if there is no reaction, and especially if the 
patient shows symptoms of convulsions, the prognosis is 
bad. 

Treatment. — Stimulating agents are recommended, such as 
rubbing the surface of the body: allowing the patient to 
inhale fumes of ammonia; subcutaneous injections of ether, 
caffein, or oil of camphor; internally alcohol or black coffee 



212 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

are indicated. In small animals the electric battery may be 
useful. In chronic cases only a successful treatment of the 
basic disease will heal the brain anemia. 



CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. 

Brain congestion may be active, due to an engorgement of 
the brain with aterial blood, or it may be passive, caused 
by a stoppage of the outflow of venous blood. 

Etiology. — Passive congestion rarely produces symptoms in 
animals. An active hyperemia of the brain can be caused 
by an increased heart activity and the loss of tonus in the 
cerebral arteries due to overwork, rough treatment of young 
animals (breaking colts; the excitement of railway or ship 
transportation); estrum; fright; hypertrophy of the heart; 
acute alcohol poisoning; sun- and heatstroke. A collateral 
congestion may result from compression of the large blood- 
vessels of the abdomen in severe bloating of the stomach or 
bowels. An active hyperemia of the brain is the first stage 
of inflammation. 

A passive hyperemia occasionally occurs from compression 
of the jugulars from ill-fitting collars, too tight throat latches 
("choking down" of horses), tumors, inflammatory swellings 
or enlarged thyroids which press upon the jugulars. It may 
also be a symptom of heart weakness, chronic diseases of 
the lung, or compression of the lung from gas accumulation 
in the stomach or bowels. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of active hyperemia are those 
of excitement, which usually is soon followed by a stage of 
depression. The pupils are dilated, the mucous membrane of 
the head congested, the pulse and respirations are increased 
in frequency, and the poll feels warm. Very probably, how- 
ever, these symptoms represent a transient inflammation of 
the brain, often the result of a chronic hydrocephalus, which 
occasionally "flares up" in this form. 

A severe passive hyperemia causes the animal to show 
stupor, sopor, the mucous membranes cyanotic, the pulse 
small and rapid, and the patient dyspneic. 



SUN- AND HEATSTROKE 213 

Course. — In primary active hyperemia the symptoms disap- 
pear suddenly in a few hours, or they may subside gradually. 
In the passive form the symptoms disappear as soon as the 
causes are removed. Where this is impossible the patient 
will be subject to repeated attacks, and eventually the con- 
dition may lead to the animal becoming a "dummy." 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis largely depends upon the short 
duration of the symptoms. Obviously we should take into 
consideration the species, age, and condition of the patient. 
There are many conditions which simulate and are probably 
accompanied by cerebral congestion (nymphomania, infec- 
tious diseases, gastro-intestinal troubles, especially forage 
poisoning) . 

Treatment. — The patient should be kept in a cool, quiet 
place and fed easily digested food. Bleeding from the jugular 
and cold applications to the poll are recommended. Internally 
a good purge should be given. Passive hyperemia due to 
ill-fitting collars demands a change in the harness. Cases of 
heart weakness should be treated. 

SUN- AND HEATSTROKE. 

Sunstroke. — Sunstroke is a disorder of the brain and 
spinal cord produced by exposure to the direct rays of a hot 
sun acting upon the head. From a pathological standpoint 
it may be, depending on the degree, a congestion, hemorrhage, 
inflammation, or paralysis of the brain. Therefore the 
patient will show varied symptoms, such as excitement, 
raging, spasms, or death may occur suddenly from apoplexy 
or respiratory arrest. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists in the application of cold 
to the head and the use of caffein, camphor, or veratrin. To 
relieve the bowels arecalin or eserin may be used. 

Heatstroke. — Heatstroke is produced by prolonged expo- 
sure to high temperatures, especially during exercise. It is 
seen most commonly in swine that are being driven or horses 
overworked in hot weather. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are those of heart weakness 
(palpitation, rapid, weak pulse, dyspnea and cyanosis) . The 



214 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

patient is usually very languid, the gait staggering, and there 
is a profuse outbreak of sweat. Temperature may reach 
110° F. or over. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is bad, the animal usually dying 
of asphyxia. 

Treatment. — Heatstroke is treated much the same as sun- 
stroke. Atropin, caffein, and camphor are used with cold 
applications (hosing) to the body. To relieve the dyspnea 
due to edema of the lungs, bleeding may be resorted to. The 
temperature may be reduced by cold enemas. 

TRAUMATIC INJURY AND CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. 

Definition. — A bruising of the brain the result of direct 
injury to the cranium or other part of the head. 

Etiology. — In horses contusion and concussion of the brain 
may result from kicks, blows, collisions during runaways, 
falling upon the head, etc. In cattle it may be due to the 
animal falling heavily or being horned by another. The result 
of the injury is very varied. In some instances a fracture of 
the skull with hemorrhage results; in others there is a bruis- 
ing of the brain substance without even the skin showing 
lesion. Undoubtedly more or less hemorrhage occurs in the 
brain substance and intracranial tension is increased. The 
patient also suffers from shock. 

Symptoms. — Following violent blows on the head the symp- 
toms usually appear at once ; in some cases, however, an hour 
or two may elapse before they make themselves manifest. 
The symptoms are generally the result of accumulations of 
blood in the brain, due to the traumatism. Where the injury 
has not been great the animal appears stunned, falls to the 
ground, where it may remain for ten to twenty minutes, to 
finally regain complete consciousness. Sometimes permanent 
symptoms may be left behind. When the injury has been 
severe the animal is found lying unconscious, pupils dilateds 
and reflexes dormant. The respirations are slow and irregu- 
lar, the pulse usually rapid, but occasionally slow and often 
arhythmic. Incontinence of feces and urine may occur. 
Usually after lying unconscious for a few hours the reflexe, 



LIGHTNING STROKE—ELECTRIC STROKE 215 

react to stimuli; twitching of muscles appear and rolling of 
the eyeballs. The animal finally rises to its feet, and provided 
no injury to the motor tracts has resulted, it appears normal. 
In the latter case it may be left paralyzed. In severe cases 
the patient does not regain consciousness and dies under 
convulsions. 

With the return of consciousness sometimes the animal is 
left paralyzed; quite commonly the paralysis assumes the 
form of a hemiplegia. However, depending upon what motor 
tracts are involved, the form of paralysis will vary. 

Diagnosis. — When the history of injury is clear the diag- 
nosis is not difficult. On the other hand, if there is no such 
history and no lesions about the head can be noted a contusion 
might easily be confused with cerebral hemorrhage (apoplexy) 
or inflammation of the brain. The sudden appearance of 
severe brain symptoms without fever is significant in this regard . 

Prognosis. — Contusion of the brain in most cases leads 
directly or indirectly to the death of the patient. Obviously 
mild cases when the animal has been only stunned recover. 
Many patients which do not die are left permanently crippled 
through resulting paralysis. 

Treatment. — The head of the patient should be elevated 
and cold applied to the poll. Excitants such as ether or 
camphor may be used internally. After return to conscious- 
ness the use of deep bedding or slings may be recommendable, 
depending upon the individual case. 

LIGHTNING STROKE. ELECTRIC STROKE. 

By lightning or electric stroke we understand an injury 
to nerve tissue produced by powerful currents of electricity. 
In some instances no pathological change is found in the tissue, 
the condition being functional. 

Occurrence. — Lightning stroke commonly occurs in the 
open country, animals on pasture being victims. In the city 
horses occasionally come in contact with high-tension wires 
which have fallen upon the street. During the summer sea- 
son thousands of animals are killed or injured annually by 
lightning on the farms of this country. 



216 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

Symptoms. — Usually a lightning stroke kills the animal 
either instantly or in a few minutes. In other cases the 
animal appears stunned from the stroke, but soon regains 
consciousness and normal condition. In a few instances, 
however, the patient is left for a time with irregular gait, 
weakness of the hind parts, may show forced movements, and 
appear stupid and dull. Usually they recover after a few 
days or weeks. In rare cases topical symptoms are retained, 
such as monoplegia, paraplegia, paralysis of individual 
nerves, from which the animal usually recovers in one or two 
months. Horses are sometimes left permanently blind. 

Occasionally lightning stroke produces peculiar markings 
or figures on the hair or skin. These figures are often branched 
and forked, and may involve pigmented as well as unpig- 
mented skin. On the unpigmented skin they are dark colored 
and sometimes resemble a tree or forked shrub. 

Treatment. — If the patients remain down good bedding 
should be provided. To assist the return to consciousness 
excitants (alcohol, ether, camphor, caffein, skin rubbing) may 
be tried. Usually treatment is unnecessary. 



HEMORRHAGE IN THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. 
APOPLEXY. 

Definition. — By apoplexy in a narrow sense is understood a 
hemorrhage of the brain or its membranes which is due 
neither to traumatism nor inflammation. 

Etiology. — The causes are very varied. In many of the 
acute infectious diseases (anthrax, purpura hemorrhagica, 
hemorrhagic septicemia), blood diseases (anemia, leukemia), 
and in chronic inflammation of the liver and kidneys the 
walls of the bloodvessels in the brain become weakened, a 
condition conducive to hemorrhage. In rarer instances para- 
sites (larvae of sclerostomes) form a cause. Arteriosclerosis, 
a common cause of apoplexy in man, probably does not occur 
in animals. 

Symptoms. — If the hemorrhage is severe enough, general 
brain symptoms appear with which are associated topical 



MENINGOENCEPHALITIS 217 

symptoms. The gait becomes irregular, the patient may show 
forced movements, and, eventually, will fall to the ground 
unconscious and die in convulsions. In other cases the animal 
later regains consciousness but for an indefinite period shows 
topical symptoms which may later lead to death. 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms are obviously very similar to 
those noted in contusion of the brain. The diagnosis depends 
largely upon the sudden appearance of severe disturbance in 
consciousness without history of injury. 

Treatment. — During the stage of unconsciousness the treat- 
ment is the same as for contusions and concussion of the 
brain. The topical symptoms (local paralyses) which remain 
behind may be treated by passive movements of the par- 
alyzed extremities and the use of the electric battery. Iodid 
of potash is also recommended. 



MENINGOENCEPHALITIS. 

Definition. — By meningo-encephalitis is meant an inflamma- 
tion of the pia mater and brain. Throughout the brain sub- 
stance occur numerous small centres of cell infiltration. 

Occurrence. — In a primary form the disease is most common 
in horses. It is rare in other animals. In the horse it is most 
apt to occur during the warm season. 

Etiology. — The disorder may be primary or secondary. 
The primary cases are usually the result of infection. Several 
organisms (micrococci, diplococci) have been accused. Other 
infectious agents such as the necrosis bacillus and the Micro- 
coccus ascoformans have been determined in the meningeal 
exudate. 

In cattle the disease is quite commonly associated with 
parturition occurring as a puerperal meningitis manifesting 
itself up to two days before calving. Certain predisposing 
causes which reduce the resistance of the patient are un- 
doubtedly factors. Therefore unfavorable weather, working 
the horse in the hot sunshine, intensive feeding, hot, illy 
ventilated stables, overexertion, tying the head too high 
after operations, etc. 



218 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

A secondary meningo-encephalitis may follow strangles in 
the horse or tuberculosis in the ox. Obviously, meningo- 
encephalitis may also result from traumatism, inflammation 
of the brain and meninges following an injury. Abscesses 
in the neighborhood of the cranium (eye socket), necrosis 
of the atlas, diseases of the middle ear, etc., may lead to an 
infection of the brain. 

In rare cases parasites (sclerostomes, Gastrophilus equi, 
ccenurus and cysticerci) may be causes. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of brain disturbance usually 
develop rapidly. The patient appears stupid, languid, the 
facial expression staring, and the attitude unphysiological. 
Horses often stand with their fore and hind feet drawn 
together, the head pendent, and the eyelids partially closed. 
The patient pays little or no attention to its surroundings, 
does not eat, and fails to obey commands. The gait is awk- 
ward, stumbling, and sometimes the fore feet are lifted as if 
the horse were wading in water. There are often marked 
symptoms of cerebral excitement, the patient running about 
in an aimless fashion, not infrequently colliding with the fence, 
building, or whatever may come in its way. Forced move- 
ments are also observed, the animal walking in a circle. 

Cattle are restless, look wild, bellow, tear up the earth with 
their horns, and may even attack persons. They finally drop 
to the ground and are seized with convulsions. In tubercular 
meningitis symptoms of excitement are usually absent. 

Following the stage of excitement which usually lasts not 
over half an hour the patient goes over into a stage of stupor, 
seems oblivious of its surroundings, stands with the eyelids 
half-closed, head sunken, chin resting upon the edge of the 
manger, or quite commonly the head is forced into a corner. 
The gait is often irregular, awkward, the patient stumbling 
and falling as it progresses. 

While the respirations are accelerated in the stage of 
excitement, in the second stage they are usually slower than 
normal and deeper. Sometimes Cneyne-Stokes respirations 
have been noted. The pulse may be too rapid or too slow. 

During the stage of excitement the sensibility of the 
patient is increased; later greatly reduced. The poll of the 



MENINGOENCEPHALITIS 219 

head may feel warm; striking it lightly with a percussion 
hammer causes the patient to wince. The papilla of the eye 
is intensely congested. 

Topical symptoms in meningo-encephalitis are rare in 
animals. They consist in spasms of the eye muscles (nystag- 
mus) or a deviation of one of the eyes from its proper direction 
(strabismus) ; the pupil may be fixed or react slowly to light ; 
quite frequently the pupils are of unequal size ; spasms of the 
masseter muscles causing gnashing of the teeth or even 
trismus; the muscles of the lips, nose, ears and neck may 
also show spasmodic contractions. Paralysis of peripheral 
parts such as the pharynx, tongue and the lids occasionally 
occur. Hemiplegia is a rarer consequence. 

Fever is usually noted in the beginning of the disease. 
If the temperature remains high during the latter stages, 
it is probably due to septic infection or pneumonia which may 
complicate the disease. 

The appetite is impaired or suppressed and the prehension 
of food unphysiological, the animal eating and drinking much 
as does a "dummy." 

Course. — The disease develops in two or three days. It 
may develop suddenly with symptoms of excitement and 
violence followed by those of mental depression and stupor, 
the animal dying in less than a day. In other cases the de- 
velopment is much slower, the animal showing no very pro- 
nounced symptoms but seems mentally perturbed, shows 
impaired appetite, expressionless countenance, labored loco- 
motion, etc., symptoms which in two or three weeks attain 
a higher degree. Tubercular meningitis in cattle usually 
assumes a subacute course and develops slowly. In some . 
cases improvement is followed by a relapse. Meningo- 
encephalitis is not infrequently complicated by pneumonia 
(hypostatic or foreign body), septicemia, or pyemia. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis depends upon the history of 
some infection, the symptoms of rapidly increasing disturb- 
ance in consciousness, the eye symptoms (pupils of unequal 
size, strabismus, nystagmus, congestion of the papilla), 
trismus, and sensitiveness of the poll. Where these symptoms 
are vague the diagnosis is extremely difficult. 



220 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

From the standpoint of differential diagnosis the following 
conditions must be taken into consideration : 

(a) Functional disturbances of the brain such as accom- 
pany acute feverish infectious diseases. These are accom- 
panied by mental depression, disturbance in consciousness, 
etc. The diagnosis here would depend upon the evidence of 
the existence of the primary disease, and the fact that the 
brain symptoms are not as well developed as in meningo- 
encephalitis. 

Meningo-encephalitis might be confused with rabies. In 
rabies, however, consciousness is not disturbed in the begin- 
ning, the clinical symptoms develop progressively and char- 
acteristically (melancholia, frenzy, paralysis), and forced 
movements and spasms fail. Acute encephalitis could only 
be excluded in cases where topical symptoms appear early 
(hemiplegia, ataxia, monoplegia, etc.). A tubercular menin- 
gitis could only be diagnosed by discovering a tubercular 
iritis (rare), the evidence of tuberculosis in other organs 
and the tuberculin test. 

(b) Poisonings (lead, mercury, brine, santonin, tobacco, 
poppy leaves, opium, etc.) also produce functional brain 
disturbances which resemble the symptoms of meningo- 
encephalitis. Usually the history coupled with the fact that 
the patients show at the same time gastro-intestinal symp- 
toms suffice for the diagnosis. Brain disturbance is also 
noted in some cases of helminthiasis and in forage poisoning. 

Prognosis. — Except in the puerperal form in cows, which 
often reacts favorably to proper treatment applied early, 
meningo-encephalitis is a very fatal disease. The mortality is 
over 75 per cent. In the horse those cases which do recover 
are left "dummies" from consequent hydrocephalus. Fur- 
thermore, amaurosis, deafness, muscular paralysis frequently 
follow in the wake of the disease. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in placing the animal 
in a cool, darkened, well- ventilated stall, best in a box stall 
where it may run free, using short straw for bedding so that 
its feet will not be entangled. The food should be easily 
digestible; if the animal cannot eat, rectal feeding may be 
resorted to. To the poll cold applications may be applied. 



ENCEPHALITIS— INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN 221 

Internally, provided the animal can swallow, cooling laxa- 
tives such as salts should be given. Pilocarpin (3 to 6 grs. 
subcutaneously) is recommendable. Arecalin (1 or 2 grs. 
subcutaneously) can also be employed. In the early stages 
bleeding has been tried with apparently good results. 

When the animal is very restless and excited clysters of 
chloral hydrate may be used. Convalescence is usually 
protracted. 



ENCEPHALITIS. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 

Definition. — Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain 
which is usually circumscribed and confined to certain well- 
defined areas. It nearly always results from infection and 
appears either as a suppurative or a non-suppurative process. 

Non- suppurative Encephalitis . — Definition. — Non-suppura- 
tive encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain tissue 
occurring usually in the form of multiple foci which some- 
times are hemorrhagic. It is not an uncommon sequela to 
acute infectious diseases, although it may occur independent 
of these. 

Occurrence. — While any of the domestic animals are sub- 
ject to it, it is most frequent in the horse and dog. 

Etiology. — Non-suppurative encephalitis is the result of in- 
fection or bacterial intoxication. In the first instance it may 
be secondary to specific infectious diseases (infectious pneu- 
monia of the horse, strangles), the viruses of these diseases 
circulating through the brain, or it may be secondary to 
some local bacterial infection, the toxins of which reach the 
brain. 

Cases of encephalitis may occur concomitant with or 
follow infectious pneumonia or strangles in the horse, which 
in some outbreaks of these diseases occurs more commonly 
than in others. In rabies encephalitis, often hemorrhagic, is 
occasionally well developed. 

Encephalitis may also result from sunstroke. Feeding 
heavily on certain foodstuffs (legumes, rye) may predispose 
the animal. 



222 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

Symptoms. — If encephalitis is secondary to some specific 
infectious disease the symptoms of it may be masked by the 
basic disorder. As a rule the cerebral symptoms which begin 
either gradually or quite rapidly (hemorrhage) manifest 
themselves as disturbance in consciousness. The patient 
appears languid, stupid, more or less oblivious of its surround- 
ings, and assumes unphysiological postures. The gait is 
staggering or the patient may be down in a soporous or even 
comatose condition. Sometimes in the horse the patient will 
show symptoms of cerebral excitement or even rabiform 
symptoms. These are usually followed, however, within a 
short time by stupor. The patient may show forced movements. 

The topical symptoms are usually not determinable if there 
is much mental depression. However, some of them may 
be notable, such as paralysis of the pharynx, tongue, larynx, 
eyelids, dilated pupils, etc. If the inflammation of the brain 
is diffuse a general paresis may result, the patient being 
unable to regain its feet when down or walk without support 
when up. If the respiratory centre becomes involved fatal 
dyspnea may result. The temperature is usually elevated 
(105° F.), but the fever is mild and may be entirely absent in 
protracted cases. The pulse is generally in harmony with the 
temperature. Both are increased during the stage of excite- 
ment. In the earliest stages the appetite is good, provided 
the basic disease present has not already interfered. If the 
mental depression is marked, however, the patient may 
refuse to eat. 

Course. — The usual run of acute encephalitis is two to five 
days. Subacute cases may last for weeks and chronic ones 
for years, producing the so-called " dummy." 

When the development is rapid, disturbance in conscious- 
ness soon appears. With the development of the mental 
symptoms the topical symptoms usually keep pace. Re- 
covery occurs exceptionally. In influenza the course is more 
favorable. Cases which do not die usually lead to the patient 
becoming a "dummy" which not infrequently suffers from a 
temporary return of the encephalitic symptoms. If topical 
symptoms are left behind obviously they may interfere with 
the animal's efficiency. 



ENCEPHALITIS— INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN 223 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis depends upon the symptoms of a 
severe brain disturbance with which is associated well-defined 
topical symptoms such as hemiplegia, monoplegia, ataxia, 
facial paralysis, etc. If these symptoms occur with or follow 
an infectious disease with which a non-suppurative encepha- 
litis is apt to occur a diagnosis is possible. On the other hand, 
primary encephalitis is quite difficult to diagnose unless both 
the general and topical symptoms are well developed. From 
purulent encephalitis the non-suppurative form can usually 
be distinguished by the absence of injury to the cranium or 
the absence of a primary abscess in some removed organ 
or in the cranial wall. It may be impossible to distinguish 
between encephalitis and meningo-encephalitis in those cases 
of encephalitis in which the topical symptoms fail. Further- 
more, in some cases of encephalitis the meninges may be also 
involved. Encephalitis is distinguished from chronic hydro- 
cephalus by its more sudden development, the severity of the 
brain symptoms, and the presence of topical symptoms. 
Encephalitis usually follows some infectious disease. From 
forage poisoning encephalitis is distinguished by the severity 
of the brain symptoms, the sporadic appearance of the dis- 
ease, the absence of intestinal symptoms, and no history of 
the animal's having eaten food which was moldy or otherwise 
spoiled. 

Treatment. — The treatment is the same as for meningo- 
encephalitis, and is usually of little aid to recovery. 

Suppurative Encephalitis (Abscess of the Brain). — Occur- 
rence. — Brain abscesses are most apt to occur in young horses. 
In the other domesticated animals abscess of the brain is 
extremely rare. 

Etiology. — The most common cause of abscess of the brain 
is strangles, which assumes the irregular form and leads to 
internal metastatic abscesses. It may occasionally result 
from other infectious diseases, such as puerperal septicemia, 
purulent pneumonia, infectious pneumonia (with secondary 
pus infection), and pyemia. Occasionally an abscess of the 
brain may result from direct injury to the cranium or from 
abscesses which occur in the neighborhood of the brain. In 
rarer instances parasites (estrus, ccenurus, echinococcus in 



224 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

sheep ; Estrus bovis in cattle, and gastrophilus in the horse) 
are causes. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of brain abscess may develop 
either very rapidly or gradually. In the former case the 
symptoms are acute; in the latter, subacute. When the 
symptoms develop rapidly the patient shows fever and not 
infrequently mental excitement, even amounting to rabiform 
symptoms. These may be followed by mental depression or 
may persist until the death of the animal. The muscles may 
twitch or undergo clonic spasms; forced movements are not 
infrequently observed. The patient usually dies in a few days 
or in less than two weeks. In other instances, as noted, the 
symptoms develop gradually, the patient showing disturbance 
in consciousness, forced movements, usually walking in a 
circle. There may be occasional manifestations of cerebral 
excitement ; epileptiform attacks with intervals between dur- 
ing which the patient appears normal. The temperature may 
not be increased, although usually it is intermittent or remit- 
tent in type (pus temperature). Topical symptoms, such as 
sudden blindness in one or both eyes; the pupils may react 
unsymmetrically. Hemiplegia has also been observed. The 
head of the patient is often held to one side and attempts to 
straighten it cause symptoms of excitement. Some patients 
show vertigo, irregular gait, and a tendency to fall while in 
motion. Sometimes pressure on the poll produces epilepti- 
form convulsions, 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis depends very largely upon the 
history of the case, ?'. e., whether or not the patient has 
suffered from a disease of suppurative character (strangles, 
puerperal septicemia) . The acute form of abscess of the brain 
cannot be distinguished from many cases of acute encepha- 
litis or meningo-encephalitis. On the other hand, brain abscess 
which assumes a subacute course may be distinguished by the 
periodicity of the brain attacks between which the animal 
may seem in good health, a remittent fever (take temperature 
for several days), the absence of sensitiveness of the poll, and 
the peculiar topical symptoms shown. As meningo-encepha- 
litis may also result from a primary abscess the presence of such 
an abscess does not necessarily speak for abscess of the brain. 



INFECTIOUS MENINGO-ENCEPHALOMYELITIS 225 

Treatment. — In animals little can be done to relieve the 
patient. The treatment is therefore the same as for meningo- 
encephalitis. Id rare instances the abscess may be opened 
after trephining the cranium and its contents evacuated. 
Obviously the abscess must first be located, a difficult matter 
in animals, and it must lie superficially if results are to be 
expected. 

INFECTIOUS MENINGO-ENCEPHALOMYELITIS. 

Borxa Disease. Enzootic Cerebrospinal Meningitis 
of Horses. 

Definition. — Enzootic meningo-encephalomyelitis is an 
acute infectious disease of the brain and spinal cord of the 
horse which is characterized clinically by symptoms of cere- 
bral excitement followed by depression, paralysis of peripheral 
nerves, and general paralysis. It is usually fatal. 

Occurrence. — The disease was first described in AYurtem- 
berg, Germany, in 1813. It is common in the State of Saxony, 
where, in 1894, it attacked a number of horses in and near 
the city of Borna, from which place the disease derived its 
name. Whether or not this disease has ever existed or does 
exist in the United States is in dispute. Some authorities 
claim to have recognized it; this is denied by others, who 
believe that outbreaks of so-called forage poisoning among 
horses were mistaken for it. Until a complete scientific study 
is made of forage poisoning, which is probably not a clinical 
entity, this question will not be definitely settled. 

In Europe Borna disease is confined to limited districts 
in which the disease breaks out at different periods, sometimes 
annually, sometimes with several years between outbreaks. 
It is most apt to occur following wet seasons. The disease is 
usually confined to certain farms, but during some years 
becomes a more widely distributed enzootic. 

Etiology. — The cause of the disease has not yet been deter- 
mined. The Borna coccus (Diplococcus intracellularis equi) 
has not been proved to be the cause. 

Natural Infection. — Horses are probably infected through 
contaminated food and water. Some authorities believe that 
15 



226 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

the infection is acquired through the respiratory organs. 
However, Borna disease is more common in the winter and 
early spring months than in summer, the dusty period of the 
year. It is possible that the virus is voided with the urine. 
The disease is not communicable. It is much more common 
among farm than city horses. 

Necropsy. — Macroscopically the brain appears normal, but 
under the microscope a marked cellular infiltration is noted in 
the meninges, brain, and spinal cord. Especially typical 
changes have been noted in the ganglionic cells in the olfac- 
tory lobes a'nd horns of Ammon which contain peculiar, 
intensively stained bodies within the cell nucleus ("nuclear 
inclusions"). 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are varied, but in general are : 
early fatigue, icterus of the mucous membranes and digestive 
disturbances, sometimes amounting to colic attacks. These 
are followed by symptoms of cerebral excitement; twitching 
of the muscles of the face ; spasms of the muscles of the neck, 
sometimes producing torticollis ; occasionally trismus, nystag- 
mus, unequal dilatation of the pupils, skin hyperesthesia, 
exaggerated reflexes, occasionally increased sexual desire, and 
psychic phenomena. In some instances the patients are 
vicious, aggressive; in others they show epileptiform spasms. 
Later the patients appear depressed, stupid, even soporous, 
and may show forced movements. Motor paralysis is recog- 
nized by a weak, staggering gait, paralysis of the pharynx 
and general paralysis. The pulse, respirations, and tempera- 
tures are usually little affected. In a few cases an eczema of 
the skin appears. 

Course and Prognosis. — The course is usually from eight to 
fourteen days. The mortality is over 90 per cent. Those 
which recover are often left infirm through blindness, epilepsy, 
permanent loin lameness or they remain "dummies." 

Treatment. — Treatment is of no avail. As a preventive it is 
recommended to change the food and drinking water and to 
keep the animals from infested pastures. Water from wells 
and cisterns which are contaminated with stable seepage 
should be especially avoided, 



CHRONIC HYDROCEPHALUS 227 

CHRONIC HYDROCEPHALUS. 

Definition. — Chronic hydrocephalus is a brain disorder 
common in horses, but rare in other animals, caused by the 
collection of serous fluid in the lateral ventricles of the brain. 
It leads through pressure to dilatation of the lateral ventricles, 
an increase in the size of the brain and an elevation of the 
intracranial pressure. The condition is rarely congenital, 
more often acquired. 

Etiology. — Two types of hydrocephalus may be distin- 
guished from the standpoint of etiology: (a) Inflammatory 
hydrocephalus, the result of acute inflammation of the brain 
of which it is a sequela developing in about one month. In 
this condition the fluid is an exudate, (b) A primary or 
idiopathic hydrocephalus is probably of mechanical origin and 
the fluid a transudate. It may be due to a congenital con- 
striction or closing of the Sylvian aqueduct. An inherited 
predisposition to this form of brain hydropsy is probable. 

Symptoms. — Chronic hydrocephalus in the horse is the 
commonest cause of the so-called "dummy." There is 
usually more or less disturbance in consciousness which the 
animal shows by a number of clinical symptoms. The follow- 
ing are the most characteristic, all of which are made more 
prominent by vigorous exercise: The attitude of the patient 
is unphysiological, the head is held low, the limbs are fre- 
quently misplaced, the legs being crossed, and the patient is 
apt to stand diagonally in the stall. The patient seems indif- 
ferent to its surroundings, is sleepy, the eyelids partially 
closed, little attention is paid to commands, and an effort to 
back the horse is futile. The heart action is slow, the pulse 
in some cases dropping to 20 to 30, although it retains its 
normal softness. The symptoms of depression, appearing 
from time to time, are due to a rise of intracranial press- 
ure. Periods of excitement may occur which cause the 
animal to show symptoms as in the stage of excitement 
in acute inflammation of the brain. The appetite of the 
"dummy" is often impaired and the prehension of food 
unphysiological. Eating is quite frequently interrupted, the 
animal apparently forgetting for the moment that it is at a 



228 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

meal. In drinking the head is often projected up to the eyes 
in water; in some instances the animal tries to "eat" rather 
than drink the water. As noted these symptoms are usually 
emphasized by exercise until the animal is in a profuse sweat. 
Occasionally symptoms of vertigo and syncope occur. The 
skin reflexes (snapping the forehead, poking a finger in the 
ear, treading upon the coronet) are either diminished or may 
in some cases be exaggerated. In driving a "dummy" some- 
times the animal tends to go to the left or right of the road 
notwithstanding the effort of the driver to prevent it. The 
gait is often abnormal, the animal walking as if in water, with 
a high wading movement of the fore limbs, or, on the other 
hand, it may frequently stumble, setting its feet down in an 
uncertain fashion. 

Course. — The course is chronic and accompanied by many 
exacerbations and remissions. The animal may live for many 
months or even years, showing improvement in cold and 
becoming worse in warm weather. In exceptional cases it 
may even refuse to eat and die of starvation. It is remark- 
able how often the condition as to flesh is retained notwith- 
standing a very variable appetite and the relatively small 
quantity of food consumed. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is bad as far as producing healing 
is concerned. However, many " dummies" can render service 
at slow work and especially during cool weather for months or 
even years. In time, however, through gradual mental and 
locomotor disturbances, their usefulness ceases, and even- 
tually they are destroyed. 

Treatment.— Treatment is of no avail. The efficiency of the 
animal may, however, be prolonged by feeding only light 
laxative food and giving the patient good care. To relieve 
constipation, salts should be given, and during an exacerba- 
tion, hypodermic injections of pilocarpin (gr. iv-vj) or 
arecalin (gr. j-ij) afford relief. 

BRAIN TUMORS. 

In animals brain tumors are comparatively rare. In the 
horse the cholesteatoma has been noted quite frequently on 
necropsy. During life it rarely produces symptoms. The 



GID—CCENUROSIS 229 

tumor varies in size from a pea to a hen's egg. Other tumors 
occurring in the brain substance are gliomas, gliosarcomas, 
melanosar comas, and very rarely carcinomas. Some of the 
chronic infectious diseases may produce growths in the brain 
such as tuberculosis, actinomycosis and botryomycosis. 

In the meninges, fibromas, lipomas, angiomas, sarcomas, 
epitheliomas, papillomas, and dermoid cysts have been noted. 

Symptoms. — Due to the slow growth of brain tumors they 
rarely produce any symptoms during life. A tumor the size of 
a hen's egg (melanoma) has been found in the brain of a horse 
without the animal seeming in any way disturbed by it. 

In rare instances brain tumors may produce periodical 
increases in intracranial tension, especially after vigorous 
exercise, causing symptoms of transient cerebral excitement, 
followed by depression, or the patient may show symptoms of 
chronic hydrocephalus. More rarely the symptoms closely 
simulate acute meningo-encephalitis or encephalitis, the 
animal dying in a short time. Sometimes brain tumors pro- 
duce epileptiform seizures, cerebral ataxia, forced movements, 
hemiplegia, blindness, and an abnormal carriage of the head. 
Congestion of the papilla is thought by some observers sig- 
nificant of brain tumor, and is a probable cause of the blind- 
ness (amaurosis). 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is obviously extremely difficult. 
The gradual development of the symptoms, both general and 
topical, the congestion of the papilla, and the absence of 
fever point to the condition. In rare cases in which the tumor 
leads to a deformity of the cranium the diagnosis is easier. 
The clinical symptoms of chronic hydrocephalus, chronic 
meningo-encephalitis, abscess, and parasites of the brain so 
closely resemble those of tumor in many cases that an accu- 
rate diagnosis becomes impossible. 

Treatment. — Treatment for brain tumor in animals is rarely 
of avail. In man they are occasionally removed surgically. 

GID. OENUROSIS. 

Definition. — Gid is a chronic parasitic disease of sheep and 
cattle, due to the presence of the Ccenurus cerebralis in the 
brain and very rarely in the spinal cord. 



230 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

Natural History. — Coenurus cerebralis is the cyst form of 
the tapeworm Taenia ccenurus. The adult worm is harbored 
by dogs, principally shepherd and butcher's dogs. Occasion- 
ally wolves and foxes are hosts. The infestation of sheep and 
cattle takes place by their ingesting the eggs or proglottides 
which are voided with the feces. The shell of the egg is 
dissolved in the abomasum allowing the six-hooked embryo to 
escape. The embryos perforate the bowel wall and probably 
through the bloodvessels reach the brain and spinal cord 
where they produce a hemorrhagic leptomeningitis and in 
some instances a purulent infection. They ultimately develop 
into cysts from the size of a pigeon's to a hen's egg. The 
cyst produces atrophy of the brain tissue surrounding it and 
also of the overlying skull. 

Occurrence. — While gid is common in some districts abroad 
it is a comparatively rare disease in the United States, 
although isolated outbreaks have occurred in various parts of 
this country. Sheep are much more commonly infested than 
cattle, in which it is a very rare disease. Young sheep are 
more susceptible than aged ones. 

Symptoms in Sheep. — From a clinical standpoint, and due 
to the development of the parasite in the brain, three stages 
of the disorder may be determined: (a) The stage of acute 
cerebral inflammation, (b) the stage of latency due to the 
gradual growth of the cyst, and (c) the stage of gid, the cyst 
being completely developed. 

The stage of brain irritation sets in from one to two weeks 
after infestation, and, as a rule, lasts about one week. Usu- 
ally this stage is overlooked by the shepherd, as most com- 
monly the symptoms are not marked. Otherwise the sheep 
present symptoms of excitement, fright, forced movements, 
and even convulsions; or, on the other hand, may show lan- 
guor, stupor, irregular gait, and more rarely maniacal symp- 
toms. 

In the stage of latency, which lasts from three to six 
months, the patient appears normal. 

The gid stage usually develops in winter or early spring, 
and lasts about one month. In this stage the patient shows 
mental or motor disturbance and often topical symptoms. 



INFECTIOUS BULBAR PARALYSIS 231 

Quite commonly the first symptoms noted is that of mental 
disturbance. The sheep appear stupid, and in some instances 
act like a horse with chronic hydrocephalus. Later charac- 
teristic forced movements appear, the sheep running around 
in circles, trotting across the field with head up and high 
knee action or they may roll over the long axis of the body 
using a limb or the head as a pivot. Sometimes the sheep 
falls suddenly on its side or may fall over backward, the 
head being held high, with spasms of the muscles of the neck. 
Epileptiform convulsions, nystagmus, strabismus, and blind- 
ness are occasional symptoms. In rare instances a soft, 
fluctuating area appears at the top of the skull which, if 
punctured, discharges a clear fluid. The disease usually leads 
to death through brain paralysis and inanition. 

Treatment. — The most important is the prophylaxis which 
consists in driving out the tapeworm from the dog and pre- 
venting dogs from obtaining the brains of sheep containing 
the cyst. An operative treatment consists in trephining and 
trocaring the cranium over the seat of the cyst and removing 
its contents. 

INFECTIOUS BULBAR PARALYSIS. 
Infectious Itching Disease. Mad Itch. Psetjdorabies. 

Definition. — A peculiar infectious disease which manifests 
itself mainly by marked pruritus of the skin, nervous irri- 
tability and sometimes paralysis of the throat and general 
paralysis. 

Occurrence. — Bulbar paralysis was first definitely recog- 
nized in Hungary in 1902. The disease has been noted in the 
United States, especially in the Southern States (Alabama), 
where it is much confused with rabies. 

Etiology. — The cause of the disease is unknown. It may be 
readily transmitted by inoculating brain tissue from animals 
which have died of it into healthy cattle, sheep, and goats. 
Horses and asses do not seem to be as susceptible to artificial 
inoculations as other animals. Dogs, cats, rabbits, guinea- 
pigs, rats, and mice also acquire the disease when injected 
with virulent material. The virus seems most potent in the 



232 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN 

tissue at the point of inoculation, next in the blood, and then 
in the central nervous organs. Bile, saliva, and urine do not 
seem to be infective. The virus does not pass through fine 
porcelain filters. Infection through the digestive tract has 
been produced. 

Symptoms. — In horses and mules the first symptom is 
usually an itching of the skin, especially about the head, 
which causes the patient to rub the part often so violently 
that it may be denuded of hair, excoriated, or even lacerated. 
The patients are further excitable, irritable, show dysphagia, 
salivation, gritting of the teeth, and finally paralysis. The 
temperature usually does not rise much above normal. 

In cattle the infection generally appears about the head, 
lips, and nose which parts the animal rubs violently, producing 
hemorrhage and inflammatory swellings which extend over 
the head, throat, and sometimes the neck. The patient is 
restless, moves its legs convulsively, keeps rubbing the head 
against objects, or scratches it with its hind feet. Salivation 
and inability to swallow are often noted. In some cases the 
digestion is imparied, the patient showing flatulency. The 
animals usually die in one or two days after the first symp- 
toms appear. 

Course and Prognosis. — The course is rapid, the patients 
dying within twenty-four to thirty-six hours. The prognosis 
is bad ; nearly every case dies. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis during the life of the patient is 
not so easy on account of the similarity of the disease to 
rabies. However, the patient with bulbar paralysis does not 
show the aggressive and destructive tendencies of the rabid 
animal and the symptom of pruritus is much more marked; 
on postmortem Negri bodies are absent; animals inoculated 
usually die more rapidly (rabbits in convulsions in one to 
three days), and the saliva is not infective. 

Treatment. — Treatment is rarely of avail. It is recom- 
mended to apply tincture of iodin to the skin lesions, and if 
possible to so tie the animal that it cannot bite and rub itself. 
Edematous swellings may be scarified and iodin injected. 

Believing that Rhus toxicodendron (three-leaved poison 
ivy) or the shrub Rhus vernix might be etiological factors, 



INFECTIOUS BULBAR PARALYSIS 233 

Gary, of Alabama, recommends that these plants be eradi- 
cated from pasture fields or that animals be kept from pas- 
tures containing them. He also suggests the use externally of 
permanganate of potash solution (1 per cent.) two or three 
times daily. Internally, Epsom salts or raw linseed oil are 
recommended. 



CHAPTER II. 
DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD. 

TRAUMATIC INJURY OF THE SPINAL CORD. 

Contusion of the Cord. "Broken Neck." 
"Broken Back." 

Definition. — A bruising or laceration of the cord due to 
direct or indirect injury and usually the result of fracture of 
vertebra?. 

Occurrence. — Traumatic injury to the cord is not uncom- 
mon in horses. Occasionally it occurs among cattle and more 
rarely in swine and sheep. 

Etiology. — It is usually due to falls, blows, and in horses 
from struggling in the hopples, especially if the animal is 
permitted to arch the back and neck upward, the head not 
being held properly. Either fracture or dislocation of verte- 
brae results, leading to sudden pressure upon the cord with 
bruising and sometimes laceration. In some instances osteo- 
porosis of the vertebrae predisposes to fracture; very rarely 
a fissure of the vertebrae exists. Obviously a hemorrhage into 
the cord occurs. In rare instances the injury to the cord is 
due to the blood-clot alone, neither dislocation nor fracture of 
the vertebrae having taken place. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms will depend upon what part of 
the cord is injured and the degree of injury. If the cervical 
portion between the medulla oblongata and the origin of the 
fifth and sixth cervical nerves is involved and the cord com- 
pletely crushed, the patient will die almost immediately from 
respiratory arrest. If only a part of the cord is crushed, how- 
ever, it is possible for the patient to live several hours or 
even weeks after the accident. It will show symptoms of 
paralysis behind the seat of injury, dysphagia, dyspnea, and 
slow pulse. 

If the cord is crushed just behind the origin of the phrenic 



TRAUMATIC INJURY OF THE SPINAL CORD 235 

nerve a paralysis and anesthesia of the parts behind will 
result. Breathing will be performed by the diaphragm, the 
ribs remaining stationary. The patient will also show 
paralysis of the bowels, bladder, and tail which becomes as 
limp as a dish-rag (" dish-rag tail"). The pupils may be 
unequally dilated but react to light. 

If the cord is crushed in its thoracic portion the symptoms 
are the same except that the foreparts of the animal are not 
paralyzed and the ribs are employed in respirations. 

In the lumbar portion of the cord the symptoms are similar 
except that the paralysis is confined to the hind limbs, tail, 
rectum and bladder. 

For a time after the injury to the cord the patient may 
show profuse sweating, marked dyspnea and spasmodic con- 
tractions of the muscles in the neighborhood of the injury. 
In large animals sensitiveness along the fracture is rarely 
noted and crepitation cannot usually be determined. Obvi- 
ously anesthesia exists behind the point of lesion. 

Course and Prognosis. — Nearly all cases of fracture or dislo- 
cation of vertebrae are fatal. In horses and cattle death 
usually ensues within forty-eight hours. Some cases of 
apparent recovery suffer relapse and death from subsequent 
dislocation of broken fragments or the formation of masses of 
callous which encroach upon the cord. 

Diagnosis. — As a rule the diagnosis is not difficult, especially 
where there has been a history of direct or indirect injury. 
The bilateral paralysis and anesthesia occurring immediately 
behind the affected area, the limp tail and the rapid develop- 
ment of the symptoms are significant. From the standpoint 
of differential diagnosis fracture of the pelvis (no anesthesia, 
tail, rectum, or bladder paralysis) and azoturia (history, no 
tail paralysis, dark urine) should be thought of. 

Treatment. — Treatment is of no avail. Cases which recover 
are usually the result of hemorrhage only into the cord. With 
valuable animals it is sometimes advisable to wait one or two 
days before dispatching the patient, to determine whether or 
not the symptoms arise from irreparable crushing of the cord 
or a blood-clot. In the latter case approaching recovery is 
manifested by a rather rapid disappearance of the symptoms. 



236 DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD 

INFLAMMATION OF THE COVERINGS OF THE CORD. 

Acute Spinal Meningitis. Meningomyelitis. 

From a pathological standpoint may be distinguished : (a) 
Spinal meningitis, an inflammation of the meningeal cover- 
ings of the cord. If the hard spinal membrane is involved, a 
spinal pachymeningitis is spoken of; if the soft a spinal 
leptomeningitis, (b) Myelitis, an inflammation of the sub- 
stance of the cord. In practice the inflammation so commonly 
involves both the cord and its coverings that the term 
meningomyelitis is usually most applicable to the condition. 

Occurrence.- — Spinal meningitis is a rather rare disease in 
horses except when it occasionally assumes an enzootic dis- 
tribution. 

Etiology. — The principal cause of spinal meningitis is in- 
fection. The condition is rarely secondary to acute infectious 
diseases such as infectious pneumonia of the horse, strangles, 
pyemia and septicemia. It may also result from inflammation 
which exists in the neighborhood of the cord, such as caries 
of the vertebra, abscesses which erupt into the vertebral 
canal and it is possible that infection may be carried along the 
nerve trunks to the cord and its coverings. A primary spinal 
meningitis may be occasionally the result of traumatism such 
as a blow over the back, or rarely where a horse's tail is 
docked too closely. In very rare instances sharp-pointed 
foreign bodies which have been swallowed by cattle have 
wandered into and injured the cord. The form of inflamma- 
tion may be either serofibrinous or suppurative. 

Symptoms. — The gait of the animal affected is usually stiff, 
straddling and labored. In the first stages the skin over 
certain areas, especially in the region of the back, is extremely 
sensitive. Stroking the animal in a direction contrary to the 
lay of the hair causes severe pain, the patient arching the 
back, becoming restless and making every effort to evade the 
examiner. Striking the tops of the spines of the vertebrae 
with the handle of a percussion hammer may cause the 
animal to evince pain. 

Groups of muscles show twitching or more marked spasm- 



INFLAMMATION OF COVERINGS OF THE CORD 237 

like contractions which are usually initiated whenever the 
skin is touched. In some instances the patient is so sensitive 
that it may rear into the air. The muscles of the back and 
neck appear firm and extremely tender. If the abdominal 
muscles are involved the respirations are rapid and super- 
ficial. Urination and defecation are painful and difficult. In 
some cases spasm of the sphincters of the bladder and anus 
produce retention of urine and feces. In rare instances in 
male animals priapism occurs. 

As the cord substance usually becomes involved later, 
paralyzing the roots of the motor nerves, paralysis of muscle 
groups, diminished reflexes, and decreased sensibility occur. 
In the latter stages the animal becomes paralyzed, the par- 
alysis involving all parts of the body behind the cord lesion. 
The temperature of the patient is usually increased. 

Course. — As a rule death ensues within a week. When the 
inflammation is confined to circumscribed areas of the cord 
the patient may live for months. 

Diagnosis. — If the disease develops typically and each stage 
can be observed a diagnosis usually can be made. The 
gradual diminution of the symptoms of extreme skin sen- 
sitiveness and muscle spasms in the region of the spinal 
nerves, the recognizable spread of the inflammation along the 
course of the cord and the presence of a primary disease in 
the neighborhood of the spinal canal are significant. The 
peculiar course differentiates spinal meningitis from con- 
tusion of the cord. From the standpoint of differential 
diagnosis muscular rheumatism, laminitis and tetanus should 
be thought of. From acute muscular rheumatism the marked 
sensitiveness of the skin seen in spinal meningitis is signi- 
ficant; in laminitis the presence of foot symptoms, and in 
tetanus the absence of sensory disturbances and the pro- 
lapse of the nictating membrane when the head is elevated, 
serve for differentiation. A distinction between spinal menin- 
gitis and myelitis is not always possible. However, myelitis 
is characterized by sensory and motor paralysis with which is 
usually associated paralysis of the bladder and rectum and 
does not present symptoms of hyperalgesia and muscular 
spasms. 



238 DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD 

Treatment. — The patient should be made as comfortable as 
possible. Horses should be given deep bedding and the 
paralyzed parts kept scrupulously clean and protected to 
avoid decubitus. If the conditions permit a sling may be 
used. Internally salicylate of sodium (gss) or calomel (5j) 
may be used. When the pain is very great and the spasms of 
the muscles marked, narcotics such as chloral hydrate or 
morphin may be administered. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE CORD. 
Spinal Myelitis. 

Definition. — Spinal myelitis is an inflammation of the sub- 
stance of the cord usually due to infection or intoxication. 

Occurrence. — Spinal myelitis is a rare disease in horses and 
cattle. 

Etiology. — It is usually secondary to influenza, rabies, 
rarely to tuberculosis in the ox, and still more rarely to 
strangles. In so-called forage poisoning of horses occasion- 
ally myelitis has been noted. In many instances no cause 
can be determined. Refrigeration, overexertion, and abuse 
of the sexual organs are probably only predisposing factors. 

Symptoms.— Three forms of myelitis are described from a 
clinical standpoint, viz.: (a) transverse, (6) disseminated, and 
(c) diffuse. In animals a differentiation among these, how- 
ever, is not always possible. The symptoms of myelitis are 
dependent upon the site and extent of the spinal inflammation 
and vary accordingly. 

Transverse Myelitis. — A focal lesion affecting more or less 
completely the whole transverse area of the cord. Depending 
upon whether the cervical, dorsal, or lumbosacral regions are 
involved the symptoms will vary. 

The sensory and motor disturbances usually develop gradu- 
ally. For a time the animal may show only early fatigue 
when at work, may lie down frequently and rise to its feet 
with difficulty. Later the gait becomes irregular behind, the 
animal seems "weak in the back," and frequently knuckles 
in the hind fetlock. Later it may become completely par- 
alyzed behind the point of lesion. Horses may therefore 



INFLAMMATION OF SUBSTANCE OF THE CORD 239 

assume a sitting posture ; cattle and small animals may drag 
the hind parts. The skin and tendon reflexes may be exag- 
gerated, especially if the myelitis has developed gradually 
and the paralysis be of spastic type; or, on the other hand, 
they may be greatly diminished, the muscles involved lose 
tone, become flabby, and no longer contract. The bladder, 
rectum, and tail eventually become paralyzed, leading to 
incontinence of urine and feces and the development of a 
limp tail. Provided the animal live long enough, there usually 
later develops atrophy of groups of muscles. Edema of the 
skin and diffuse sweating have also been noted. 

Disseminated Myelitis. — This should be regarded more as a 
multiple of the transverse type than as a separate disease. It 
is very rare in animals. Depending upon the seat, size, and 
number of inflammatory foci the symptoms vary. In some 
instances they are identical with transverse myelitis. A 
diagnosis is only possible when the patient manifests a cir- 
cumscribed motor and sensory paralysis which may be con- 
fined to one hind limb or to certain groups of muscles. Not 
infrequently the muscles involved may show rhythmic twitch- 
ings or contractions. In the horses a string-halt-like move- 
ment of a limb has been noted. In the dog a desire to gnaw 
at a part until it became mutilated has been observed. 

Diffuse Myelitis. — This is sometimes spoken of as ascend- 
ing or descending myelitis. It is characterized by progressive 
paralysis, motor and sensory, usually beginning in the hind 
limbs, croup and tail and gradually involving the whole of 
the body as the paralysis progresses anteriorly. Conversely 
it may begin anteriorly and spread toward the tail. 

Course and Prognosis. — The course depends upon the seat 
and the rapidity of extension of the inflammation. Trans- 
verse and diffuse myelitis usually end fatally in a short time 
while disseminated myelitis may last for months. Death 
usually results from septicemia (decubitus), inflammation of 
the paralyzed bladder and bowel, or in some cases from 
respiratory arrest. Recovery is very rare. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of spinal myelitis depends upon 
the presence of cord symptoms without history of injury. 
The absence of extreme skin sensitiveness and muscular 



240 DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD 

spasm differentiates it from traumatic injury. From mus- 
cular weakness attending general diseases which do not 
involve the cord, the condition may be differentiated by the 
absence in these of any sensory disturbance, bladder, rectum 
or tail paralyses. 

Treatment. — The treatment is rarely satisfactory. The 
patient should be provided with a clean, deep bed. Slings 
may be used when feasible. The bladder and rectum may 
be emptied manually. Every effort should be made to avoid 
decubital gangrene. Drugs such as iodid of potash, strychnin 
or arsenic do little or no good. Constipation may be relieved 
by subcutaneous injections of arecalin (gr. j) and rectal 
infusions. Electricity is much employed but little is 
to be expected from it. As a rule it pays to dispatch the 
patient. 

COMPRESSION OF THE SPINAL CORD. 

Definition. — A condition whereby the cord is pressed upon 
by a growth, tumor, abscess or parasite which invades the 
vertebral canal. 

Occurrence. — Compression of the cord is comparatively 
rare in large animals. Occasional cases are recorded in horses, 
cattle and swine. 

Etiology. — The following pathological conditions may lead 
to compression of the cord : 

(a) Ossification of the intervertebral disks : Occasionally in 
old horses a senile ossification occurs and if the ossified disc 
happens to protrude into the lumen of the vertebral canal, 
compression of the cord results. 

(b) Inflammatory growths: In swine tuberculosis and in 
cattle tuberculosis and actinomycosis of the vertebrae may 
involve the vertebral canal and encroach upon the cord. 
Occasionally the tuberculosis may develop upon the meninges 
of the cord with similar results. In very rare instances 
tuberculosis in the horse may involve the cord. More 
commonly glanders of the vertebral column may affect 
the cord. 

(c) Tumors: Rarely do tumors cause compression of the 



COMPRESSION OF THE SPINAL CORD 241 

cord. Generally the tumor develops in the neighborhood of 
the spinal column (sarcoma), proliferates through the inter- 
vertebral openings or through the substance of the vertebrae 
enters the canal and invades the cord. In gray horses these 
tumors are usually melanotic (melanosarcomas) . 

(d) Abscesses: Abscesses which develop in the neighbor- 
hood of the vertebral column may invade the canal, producing 
compression. As a rule, however, this is not the case, although 
the pus may enter the canal and infect the meninges. 

(e) Parasites : In cattle and sheep the Ccenurus cerebralis ; 
in swine cysticerci, and in cattle echinococci invade the spinal 
cord. They rarely produce symptoms during life and there- 
fore have only a pathological and sanitary importance. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms in large animals are usually 
those of rigidity of the spine which may make it difficult for 
the animal to eat off the ground or to rise from a recumbent 
posture. The gait is also stiff and labored. As a rule the 
patient gradually becomes paralyzed behind the seat of the 
lesion so that paralysis of the tail, rectum and bladder 
appear. 

Course. — The course is chronic. The paralysis, which is 
gradual in its development, eventually leads to permanent 
recumbency and death from decubital gangrene (septicemia) . 
In other cases hypostatic pneumonia or cystitis may be the 
cause of death. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is not easy. The gradual pro- 
gressive paralysis, anesthesia, stiffness of gait, and atrophy 
of muscles are noted in other diseases of the spinal cord. 
Obviously in those cases in which swelling and pain in the 
neighborhood of the vertebral column occur the diagnosis 
is easier. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is unfavorable. In rare cases a 
temporary improvement has been noted. However, usually 
this is followed by an exacerbation. 

Treatment. — After waiting until the patient can be observed 
long enough to determine that there is no hope of recovery it 
should be dispatched. Obviously in edible animals the de- 
struction of the patient should be undertaken earlier than in 
horses. 
16 



242 DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD 

INFECTIOUS SPINAL PARALYSIS OF THE HORSE. 

Enzootic Pakaplegia. 

Definition. — An enzootic spinal paralysis of horses, which 
usually takes an acute course and is characterized pathologi- 
cally by numerous small hemorrhages in the different organs, 
but particularly in the spinal cord. The genital organs and 
bladder not uncommonly show gelatinous infiltration. 

Occurrence. — The disease is found in different parts of 
Europe, occurring mostly among cavalry horses and in studs. 
No outbreaks have been reported in the United States. 

Etiology. — The cause of the disease is believed to be a strep- 
tococcus (Streptococcus melanogenes) which is found in the 
blood, parenchymatous organs, medullary substance of the 
bone, spinal cord, and in the gelatinous infiltration of the 
genital organs and bladder. 

Natural Infection.— Horses are infected probably through 
the digestive tract with contaminated food and water. It is 
possible that the streptococcus assumes a saprophytic life 
outside of the body. Horses of low resistance may be first 
attacked, and from them later others are infected. The 
urine and feces are probably infective. 

Symptoms. — A preliminary stage is characterized by weak- 
ness behind, rapid fatigue, and emaciation. In some cases 
spasms of the muscles of the loins, croup, and abdomen have 
been noted. In some outbreaks mild edema of the prepuce 
or vulva has been observed. The patient urinates frequently. 

In the later stage of the disease the patient may collapse 
during work or more rarely even when at rest. Paralysis of 
the hind limbs develops, making it impossible for the animal 
to rise from a recumbent position or stand without assistance. 
The digestive tract remains practically intact. In some out- 
breaks the temperature may reach as high as 107.6° F., and 
the pulse becomes very rapid. The patient may also show 
stranguria; the urine is stained red and contains albumin. 
Sensibility is not much impaired, and paralysis of the sphinc- 
ters is little developed. Occasionally there may be marked 
inflammation of the external genitals. The penis is swollen, 



SPINAL PARALYSIS OF THE HORSE 243 

edematous, and protrudes from the prepuce. In mares the 
external genitals may be swollen and edematous. 

Course. — The course is very varied. The duration of the 
disease may be from a few days to three months. Con- 
valescence is slow. The mortality varies from 50 to 100 
per cent. 

Diagnosis. — The paralytic symptoms with little impairment 
of sensibility, a good appetite, the swelling of the external 
genitals, and the enzootic occurrence of the disease are sig- 
nificant. In sporadic cases only the determination of the 
streptococci in the blood would furnish tangible evidence of 
the existence of the disease. From the standpoint of differ- 
ential diagnosis, infectious spinal paralysis might be confused 
with azoturia, infectious anemia, sclerostomiasis, and forage 
poisoning. 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment is of little or no value. 
It is purely symptomatic. 

Prophylaxis. — The food and water should be looked after 
to see that they are good and pure. The administration of 
antistreptococcic sera to healthy but exposed horses is 
thought to have a preventive action. 



CHAPTER III. 
FUNCTIONAL NERVOUS DISEASES. 

VERTIGO. 

Definition. — Vertigo is a symptom and not a disease. It is 
characterized by dizziness, a disorder of the equilibrating 
sense, causing a feeling of instability and apparent rotary 
movement of the body or other objects. Vertigo is very 
possibly, due to a disturbance in the equilibrating centre in 
the cerebellum. 

Occurrence. — Vertigo is not common in animals, but is 
occasionally seen in horses and dogs. As a rule the heavier 
breeds of horses are affected. 

Etiology. — In animals vertigo is usually secondary to brain 
diseases, such as acute and chronic encephalitis and epilepsy. 
It may also attend chronic diseases of the lung and heart, which 
cause venous congestion in the brain. Compression of the 
jugulars from the collar of the harness is a common cause. 
Vertigo is a symptom of anemia of the brain; it can also 
come from eating poisonous plants. An ocular vertigo is 
occasionally seen in horses due to light effects, such as result 
from shiny blinders or a bright light shining in the face or 
occasionally from driving the horse through an alley of trees 
which cast their shadows across the roadway. 

Symptoms. — The horse is usually attacked at work. The 
patient begins throwing and shaking its head, running back- 
ward a few steps, swaying in the shafts, and after staggering 
about falls to the ground, where it lies unconscious and quiet 
for from one to five minutes. After coming out of the attack 
the animal regains its feet and seems to be normal again. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of vertigo is usually readily 
made, but to determine its cause is often extremely difficult. 
It may be distinguished from epilepsy by the absence of 
convulsions while the animal is down. 



EPILEPSY—FALLING SICKNESS 245 

Treatment. — During an attack the patient should be un- 
harnessed and made comfortable. Some recommend throw- 
ing a blanket over the head. Ice or cold water to the poll is 
often of advantage. If the cause of vertigo can be determined 
and removed, permanent healing is possible. Usually the best 
results are obtained by changing the harness to avoid con- 
striction of the jugular veins or interference with vision. 



EPILEPSY. FALLING SICKNESS. 

Definition. — Epilepsy is a chronic disorder of the nervous 
system, characterized by attacks of unconsciousness and 
spasms, which occur periodically. Between the attacks the 
patient appears in normal health. 

Occurrence. — Epilepsy is rare in horses and cattle, but is 
relatively common in dogs. 

Etiology.— The causes of epilepsy are not known. In true 
epilepsy there are no lesions which are characteristic. Hered- 
ity has been accused. 

Symptoms. — Two forms of epilepsy may be distinguished: 
The severe type characterized by a complete epileptic con- 
vulsion (grand mal) and the milder type characterized by 
incomplete or partial attacks (petit mal) . 

Grand Mal. — In animals the epileptic seizure comes about 
suddenly and usually without prodromal symptoms (aura 
epileptica). The patient falls to the ground after showing 
symptoms of dizziness, and is rapidly overcome with severe 
tonic spasms of the head, neck, body, and limbs. The jaws 
may be locked, the neck and back bent backward, and the 
limbs extended. There are clonic spasms of the lips and the 
lower jaw, inducing movements of the jaw and foamy saliva- 
tion. The eyes are rolled in their sockets and the limbs move 
convulsively. At the same time the patient is unconscious, 
sensitiveness is lost, and the pupil dilated. The duration of 
the attack is only for a few minutes. After it is over the 
animal regains its feet, seems for a time languid, but is soon 
normal again. Between such attacks the patient appears in 
perfect health. Attacks follow at very irregular intervals. 



246 FUNCTIONAL NERVOUS DISEASES 

Epilepsy may exist for years or even during the whole life 
of the animal. 

Petit Mai. — The mild type manifests itself by spasms of 
certain groups of muscles, usually of the head (lips, facial 
muscles, eye muscles), neck, and front limbs. This is accom- 
panied by a partial and temporary loss of consciousness. 
In some cases there may be no convulsions, only loss of con- 
sciousness, as in vertigo. 

Treatment. — No successful treatment is known for epilepsy. 
In animals bromid of potash (5 j) is helpful. 

ECLAMPSIA. 

Definition. — A convulsive seizure like that of epilepsy, but 
which assumes an acute character and terminates either in 
permanent recovery or may end in death shortly following the 
attack. The term eclampsia may be used in a broad and in a 
narrow sense: Eclampsia in a broad sense would include 
brain convulsions or tonoclonic spasms, with loss of con- 
sciousness occurring usually in the course of acute encepha- 
litis, influenza, lead poisoning, or uremia. 

Enclampsia in a narrow sense would be the peculiar, acute 
epileptiform spasms in suckling animals (eclampsia infantum), 
and in mothers which have just given birth to young (eclamp- 
sia puerperal is). 

The most important type of eclampsia in animals is 
puerperal eclampsia, which is extremely rare in cows and 
sows, but relatively frequent in bitches. (See other works.) 

CATALEPSY. 

Definition. — Catalepsy is a peculiar nervous disorder, char- 
acterized by loss of consciousness combined with cramp-like 
contractions of the musculature of the body, which becomes 
rigidly fixed. The patients remain immovable in the position 
placed and the joints may be readily bent passively. At the 
same time there is loss of sensitiveness of the skin. The 
cataleptic state has been noted in dogs. It is extremely rare 
in animals. 



SPASMS OF THE DIAPHRAGM 247 

CHOREA. SAINT VITUS' DANCE. 

Definition. — Chorea, or Saint Vitus' dance, is an involun- 
tary, rhythmic twitching of certain muscles, producing irregu- 
lar jerking movements usually in the head, eyelids, and 
facial muscles, and occasionally of the limbs. 

Etiology. — The cause in animals seems to be a brain neu- 
rosis. Chorea-like twitchings sometimes result from dis- 
temper in dogs. This, however, is a sequela of encephalitis 
or meningo-encephalitis and is not a true chorea. 

SPASMS OF THE DIAPHRAGM., 

Definition. — A rhythmic spasmodic contraction of the 
muscles of the diaphragm, with which is usually associated 
clonic spasms of the abdominal muscles. 

Occurrence. — Spasms of the diaphragm are most frequently 
noted in horses. Exceptionally cases have been described in 
cattle. 

Etiology. — Digestive disturbances of an acute character 
affecting the stomach (acute catarrh, bloating), bowels 
(catarrh or constipation). Very probably toxic substances 
absorbed from the gastro-intestinal contents reflexly stimu- 
late the nerves of the diaphragm, producing the symptoms. 
Overexertion, especially when accompanied by mental excite- 
ment (runaways, overdriving, pulling an object of which the 
horse is afraid), may also induce it. Acute inflammatory 
diseases of the thoracic organs and pleura may be occasional 
causes. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are somewhat similar to those 
of palpitation of the heart, except that the spasms do 
not occur synchronously with the pulse. They consist in 
rhythmic, electric-stroke-like shocks, wmich can be seen and 
felt especially along the ribs, the loins, hollow of the flank, 
and over the chest. If the hand is placed upon the patient, 
throbs may be felt which are most intensive over the dia- 
phragmatic attachments. While coincidentally the number 
of beats may be equal to those of the heart, they are generally 
less in number (ten to fifteen per minute) and do not corre- 



248 FUNCTIONAL NERVOUS DISEASES 

spond with the heart beat. In some cases synchronous 
with each spasm a forced, noisy expiration is noted at the 
nostrils. The patient usually does not eat and is restless. 

In cattle traumatic indigestion causing injury of the 
diaphragm may be attended by diaphragmatic spasms. 

Course and Prognosis. — The course will vary from a few 
minutes to several days; most cases recover, however, in 
about two days. Generally speaking, the prognosis, which 
depends upon the cause, is favorable. 

Diagnosis. — The rhythmic throbs which produce synchron- 
ously a momentary protrusion of the hollow of the flank 
and epigastrium, with a simultaneous sinking of the inter- 
costal spaces, are significant. In doubtful cases a rectal 
exploration, the hand coming in contact with the attachment 
of the diaphragm, is assuring. 

If the spasms are confined to the abdominal muscles a 
marked twitching of these muscles may be seen and felt; 
synchronous with them the epigastrium sinks in and the 
intercostal spaces are protruded. 

Treatment. — The patient should be placed in a quiet place 
and a subcutaneous injection of morphin given (gr. iij-vj). 
Bromid of potash and chloral hydrate (§j) may be also 
used. Attending digestive disturbances should be treated. 



PART X. 
DISEASES OF THE SKIN 



ECZEMA. 



Definition. — Eczema is a dermatitis accompanied by exu- 
dation and itching involving the superficial layers of the 
corium. 

Course. — In the course of the dermatitis there develop 
erythema, papules, vesicles, and pustules, followed by 
desquamation. 

Forms. — From a clinical standpoint, and depending largely 
upon the pathological character of the dermatitis, the fol- 
lowing forms of eczema are distinguished : 

(a) Erythematous eczema, an inflammatory congestion of 
the skin. 

(6) Papulous eczema, characterized by nodules due to a 
cellular infiltration and swelling of the papilla. 

(c) Vesicular eczema, consisting in the development of 
circumscribed areas of serous exudation, or vesicles, beneath 
the external layer of the skin. 

(d) Eczema madidans, red or weeping eczema, due to the 
rupture of the vesicles from the patient biting and scratching 
them. 

(e) Pustulous eczema, characterized by the appearance of 
vesicles containing pus, or pustules. 

(/) Impetiginous eczema, originating from the rupture of 
the pustules, causing the surface of the skin affected to be 
covered with moist or dry pus. 

(g) Crustated eczema, crusts and scabs forming on the 
skin from the drying of the exudate. 



250 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

(h) Squamate eczema, where the epidermis is covered with 
masses of scales. \ 

(i) Seborrheic eczema, where the crusts are infiltrated with 
masses of fat from the sebaceous glands, forming white or 
yellowish, greasy scales. 

(i) Sycosiform eczema, which is an inflammation of the 
hair follicles, forming papules or pustules that are perforated 
by hairs. 

Etiology. — The causes of eczema are usually external, and 
consist in mechanical, chemical, thermic, and infectious irri- 
tants. The most common of these is neglect of skin cleanli- 
ness. Eczema, therefore, is most often seen on parts of the 
skin of the horse where the least grooming is done. On the 
other hand, too much water coming in contact with the skin 
can produce eczema. Examples are the eczema of sheep from 
exposure to excessive rain fall, effect of dewy pastures, muddy 
roadways, etc., upon the skin of the legs of horses or the too 
frequent bathing of dogs. Eczema can also originate from 
the discharges in diarrhea, incontinence of urine, and profuse 
sweating. The mechanical insults which produce eczema are 
insect bites (fleas, lice), biting, rubbing, and scratching on the 
part of the patient and the friction of the harness or saddle. 
Thermic influences are cold, the sun's rays (solar eczema), 
or fire. Many chemicals can produce eczema, such as mer- 
cury, mustard, tobacco, etc., when applied to the skin. Mer- 
cury or iodin given internally for a long period of time can 
have the same effect. 

Internally eczema, or more properly exanthema, can be due 
to disturbances in the digestive tract where an auto-intoxica- 
tion is produced. Exanthema also accompanies many in- 
fectious diseases and appears associated with conditions lead- 
ing to cachexia (lung- worm plague of sheep) . Finally, mange 
mites produce eczema. In man certain individuals seem pre- 
disposed to eczema. 

Symptoms. — The various pathological changes, such as the 
papule, vesicle, pustule, etc., in eczema can be noted on the 
living animal. The process passes through its varied stages 
rather rapidly, one phase developing out of the other. By 
lifting the crusts the moist areas over the papillary layer of 



ECZEMA 251 

the skin are exposed, forming very characteristic lesions. It 
is, further, not uncommon to see all or most of the different 
stages on the different parts of the skin appearing at the same 
time. Where the skin has been rubbed, scratched, or bitten 
secondary changes appear which modify the character of the 
lesions. 

Pruritus is a constant symptom of eczema. In acute cases 
it is often quite pronounced. If the eczema is acute and 
diffuse, fever may be present. From the inconvenience and 
suffering which diffuse eczema produces, the fever and loss of 
albumin to the body, in time the patient becomes anemic, 
emaciated, and cachectic. 

Horse. — In the horse the favorite seats of eczema are the 
skin of the body, the flexion surfaces of the hock, fetlocks, 
and the mane and tail. In the late spring and summer a 
rather diffuse papulovesicular eczema occurring in the form 
of nodules and scabs appears on the neck, back, sides of the 
shoulders, and croup. This is thought to be due to some 
" disorder of the blood," and is commonly known as " summer 
surfeit." In saddle horses in the saddle rest an eczema 
occurs, largely induced by sweating under the saddle blanket. 
A seborrheic eczema of the mane and tail is more common 
than suspected. In these cases the proximal ends of the hairs 
are embedded in and matted together by a mass of fat, fetid 
masses of exudate and sebum, over which large, fish-scale- 
like, enlarged epithelial cells are found. The distal end of the 
tail is most frequently involved. This form of eczema may 
lead to the loss of the tail hairs and more rarely to those of 
the mane. In old, neglected horses out of condition (bad 
teeth, gastro-intestinal catarrh) a generalized squamous 
eczema is common. Eczemas of the limbs to which are given 
such special names as scratches, mallenders, etc., are included 
in works on surgery. 

Ox. — Eczema is not so common in cattle as in the horse, 
but is seen to occur where malt or potato residue is fed. It 
affects principally the hind limbs, and is largely due to the 
liquid feces which come in contact with the skin of the legs. 
It may, however, involve the fore limbs, the body, and neck. 
This eczema is vesicular and crustated. It usually begins with 



252 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

an erythema, the skin being highly reddened, swollen, and 
painful, especially about the hind fetlocks. The patient is 
usually lame. Later there appear vesicles which soon rup- 
ture, leaving moist areas which in turn dry, forming crusts. 
Usually the eczema tends to spread on the limb to the height 
of the carpus or tarsus. The patients generally show symp- 
toms of loss of appetite, diarrhea, fever, and emaciation. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is usually good, healing occurring 
in about three weeks. A seborrheic eczema occasionally is 
seen in cattle. It is usually diffuse and eventually leads to 
complete loss of hair. Dampness is a common cause of 
eczema in sheep which have been exposed to continuous 
rainfall which keeps the wool soaked. The eczema is usually 
found along the back and croup. This form of eczema is 
sometimes called "rain rot." The skin becomes swollen and 
creviced, and is quite itchy. The areas involved are covered 
with crusts which when lifted expose moist reddened surfaces. 
The wool becomes tufted and falls out. Provided the sheep 
are not removed to shelter, they become anemic and emaci- 
ated. When the weather gets dry, usually the eczema sub- 
sides. 

Swine. — A non-parasitic eczema is rare in swine. In young, 
unthrifty pigs a squamous eczema occurs with brown or black 
crusts, hence the name "soot of young pigs." This form of 
eczema is usually seen in pigs which are kept in unsanitary 
quarters and are generally neglected. It appears particularly 
on the inner surface of the thighs along the abdomen, sides of 
the chest, and inner surface of the fore limbs. More rarely 
it affects the head. The affected skin is erythematous and 
soon becomes covered with vesicles rilled with a clear, sticky 
fluid. Pustules soon form, break, dry, and form crusts which 
from the admixture of dirt have a black appearance. Asso- 
ciated with hog cholera, eczema or more properly an exan- 
thema occurs. 

Treatment. — The treatment of eczema is mainly external. 
In all cases the cause should be removed. This in itself often 
suffices. Before treatment is applied the affected skin should 
be prepared by removing the hair and the accumulations of 
exudate. For the latter, bathing the skin in tepid soft water 



ECZEMA 253 

and a non-irritant soap followed by thorough rinsing and 
drying are important. If there are thick scabs or crusts, these 
may be softened with an ointment such as creolin ointment. 

In choosing the drugs to apply it must be borne in mind 
that a distinction must be made between acute and chronic 
eczema. 

Acute Eczema. — Water, soap, and if possible air should be 
kept from the affected skin. Crusts, scabs, and secretions 
should be removed with Burrow's solution (5 per cent.), lime- 
water and oil (equal parts), or a salicylic acid salve (4 per 
cent.). 

When the skin is moist, drying powders should be used. 

1$ — Amyl. tritici giij 

Pulv. alumini silic 5v 

Zinci. oxyd * 3j 

M. f. strew powder. 

or 

1$ — Zinci. oxid., 

Bismuth subnitrici aa 3J 

Plumbi carbonici gr. xlv 

Pulv. magnes. silic giij 

M. f. strew powder. 

Later ointments which have a metallic base or in some 
instances a plant base may be used. As examples, zinc salve, 
lead salve, and nitrate of silver salve (1 to 10). Unna's zinc 
paste : 

1$ — Oxidi. zinci 10 parts 

Terra silic 2 " 

Adeps benzoat 28 " 

M. f. ungt. 

When pruritus is marked and is not ameliorated by oint- 
ments a silver nitrate solution (10 per cent.) or an ichthyol 
salve is good. 

1$ — Ichthyol, 
Zinci oxid., 

Amyl. tritici . . , aa 1 part 

Vaselin 2 " 

M. f. ungt. 

In very moist eczemas, powders are more valuable than 
salves, which do not adhere to the skin. Powders should be 



254 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

applied bountifully two or three times daily, the old powder 
removed before applying the new, using cotton and oil. In 
obstinate cases nitrate of silver (2 to 6 per cent.) or picric 
acid (1.5 per cent.) followed by powders, and, when the 
exudate is dry, by salves. 

Chronic Eczema. — Chronic eczemas are treated, contrary to 
acute, by irritant agents. The old crusts and scales should be 
removed with Castile soap and soft water or vaselin. If water 
is used the skin afterward should be rubbed perfectly dry. 
If the skin is moist from exudate, apply powders, as in acute 
eczema. Later, coal-tar products are good, such as tar oint- 
ment (1 to 10) or tar liniment: 

1$ — Pix liquida and kaolin aa 1 part 

Alcohol 5 to 10 " 

Creolin preparations are also indicated. The following 
prescription has been found useful : 

Ifc — Creolin gj 

Phenoli gss 

Florer's sulph §j 

Spts. terebinth. 5iv 

Liquor ammoni fortis giij 

Kerosene . . . . gxl 

M. f. emulsio, apply with brush. 

Naphthol or naphthalin salve (5 to 15 per cent.) or iodin 
gylcerin are of value. 

1$ — Tint, iodini 1 part 

Glycerin. 4 " 

Salicylic acid ointment (5 to 15 per cent.) and pyrogallic 
acid (5 to 15 per cent.) are also employed. Pyrogallic acid 
ointment is especially useful if the skin is much thickened. 
All of these agents tend to loosen the crusts, reduce the pruri- 
tus, and assist in the resorption of the exudate. 

Internally mild cathartics and intestinal disinfectants 
(calomel) assist. Fowler's solution of arsenic in horses is 
useful. The patient should be given good care and food and 
prevented from biting or scratching the parts. 



URTICARIA— NETTLE RASH 255 

URTICARIA. NETTLE RASH. 

Definition. — Urticaria is an eruption of the skin appearing 
in the form of rounded, flattened elevations, which appear 
and disappear suddenly, due to an infiltration of the papillary 
bodies and the Malpighian layer of the skin. 

Etiology. — Urticaria is common in horses, cattle, and swine. 
The causes are in part external and in part internal. Urti- 
caria is often secondary to infectious diseases. 

External Causes. — The external causes are irritant sub- 
stances, such as insect stings, chemical agents (turpentine), 
nettles, and rubbing and scratching the skin. When the 
body is covered with sweat and suddenly cooled as by a 
shower of rain urticaria often develops in horses. 

Internal Causes. — Urticaria is very often a symptom of 
digestive disturbances, gastro-intestinal catarrh, constipa- 
tion, and so-called indigestion, or of general infectious dis- 
eases. There is probably formed in these cases in the fer- 
menting ingesta toxins which are absorbed and irritate the 
peripheral bloodvessels. Certain foods like rye, potato tops, 
and wheat are causes. The toxins of specific microorganisms 
also are casual, viz., dourine, swine erysipelas ("diamond 
disease"), purpura, influenza, and strangles. Urticaria also 
occurs after injections with tuberculin or mallein. Cows 
which have gone long unmilked sometimes suffer from it. 
In certain individuals there is an idiosyncrasy existing favor- 
ing urticaria when certain foods are eaten. In some instances 
no cause can be determined. 

Symptoms. — Usually without any prodromal symptoms 
there suddenly appear upon the skin of the neck, shoulder, 
sides of the chest, and croup, swellings or nodes flattened on 
top and varying in size from a pea to a clenched fist or by 
confluence even larger. The hairs over the swellings are dry 
and stand erect; the skin between is normal. In some in- 
stances vesicles appear on the swellings which erupt, causing 
them to be moist or covered with dry exudate. In other 
instances the centres of the nodes sink, leaving a wall-like 
periphery (U. annularis). By confluence grotesque figures 
may appear. 



256 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

Similar nodes may form on the mucous membranes of the 
nose and larynx. This complication may lead to cough, 
dyspnea, and edema of the glottis. In the vagina and rectum 
they may induce swelling and occasionally prolapsus recti. 
Urticaria may also involve the mouth and conjunctiva. Con- 
comitant with the eruption there may be symptoms of general 
disturbance, such as fever and loss of appetite. 

Course. — Urticaria usually disappears in from one to two 
days. In swine it may take from four to six days. In rare 
cases so much serum has accumulated between the corium and 
Malpighian layer that vesicles appear and the healing, which 
takes place under scab formation, is prolonged. Chronic 
cases have been noted, occurring with frequent relapses and 
causing the condition to last several weeks or months. Very 
rarely death results from edema of the glottis. 

Treatment. — As urticaria usually heals spontaneously, 
treatment is rarely necessary. The animal should be placed 
on short rations and a good laxative given. Local applica- 
tions to the skin are rarely indicated. 

ALOPECIA. 

Definition. — By alopecia is meant a falling out of the hairs 
without apparent skin lesion, and not due to parasites. 
Clinically two forms of alopecia are distinguished: (a) gen- 
eral alopecia (A. symptomatica) and (b) local alopecia 
(A. areata). 

Etiology. — (a) General alopecia, which consists in the hair 
falling out over the whole body, seems to be due to some 
disturbance in the nutrition of the skin with atrophy of the 
hair roots. It is most frequently seen to follow infectious 
diseases, such as influenza, purpura, or tetanus. Poisoning 
with mercury and lead and with certain foodstuffs (potatoes) 
in horses are causes. Obesity is also accused. 

(b) Local alopecia is probably due to a trophic neurosis. 

Symptoms. — General alopecia usually affects the whole 
body, the mane and tail being the last to fall out. The hair 
coat gradually grows thinner and thinner until it disappears 
except in a few places where it is usually retained. The 



PRURITUS 257 

loss of hair is often only temporary, the denuded skin soon 
again becoming covered with fine downy hair which grows out 
to full length. Local alopecia appears in the form of small, 
round bald areas which gradually increase in size and by 
coalescence form large bald spots. The skin is intact, al- 
though, as a rule, it is darker in color than normal. . 

Diagnosis. — Alopecia might be confused with herpes ton- 
surans or with mange. However, the absence of scales and 
broken hair shafts differentiate it from the former; the 
eczema and presence of the mange mite suffice to distinguish 
mange from it. 

Treatment. — While general alopecia usually leaves of itself 
in a few weeks, provided the patient and skin are given good 
care, the local form is often quite obstinate and frequently 
incurable. Fluids containing alcohol and some irritant are 
generally recommended. Tincture of cantharides (1 to 5 
alcohol), tincture of iodin (1 to 1 to 5 alcohol), and creolin 
(1 to 10 to 20 alcohol) are examples. 

ERYTHEMA. 

Definition. — Erythema is an inflammatory congestion of 
the skin which may be primary and result from various 
mechanical, chemical, and thermic causes; it may be a symp- 
tom of eczema, or it occurs secondary to infections and intoxi- 
cations. In hog cholera, erythema is occasionally seen; in 
swine erysipelas it is a constant symptom. White swine and 
sheep are affected by it if they eat growing buckwheat in the 
bright sunlight. 

PRURITUS. 

Definition. — By pruritus an itching of the skin without 
visible lesion is meant. It may be local or general. 

Etiology. — The causes are not well understood. In some of 
the infectious diseases, such as rabies, dourine, and in dis- 
orders due to worms like trichinosis and grub-in-the-head of 
sheep, it has been observed. Severe general diseases are some- 
times accompanied by pruritus, such as chronic nephritis, 
icterus, and diabetes mellitis. 
17 



258 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

Treatment. — Treatment is usually of little avail, and con- 
sists in the application of local anesthetics or irritants. 

TRICHORRHEXIS NODOSA. 

Definition. — This is a condition of the hair in which nodules 
occur along the shaft, causing the hair to bend and break off. 

It may affect the hairs of the body or the mane and tail of 
the horse. As it sometimes occurs enzootically it is probably 
due to an infection of the hair. It may be transmitted from 
one animal to another or to man. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is unfavorable. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in the application of 
antiseptics, such as bichlorid of mercury (1 per cent.), 
creolin (2 per cent.), pyrogallol (1 per cent.), or pyoctanin 
(1 per cent.). 

ACNE. 

Definition. — By acne is meant a purulent inflammation of 
the hair follicles. There form on the skin, papules and pus- 
tules. It is due to an infection with pus cocci and the result- 
ing decomposition of the sebum. A parasitic form which is 
rare in large animals is due to the mite Demodex folliculorum. 

In horses acne usually occurs in the saddle or harness 
rests where firm, painful nodules or nodes appear out of which 
may be expressed in the form of yellow waxy cylinders an 
exudate which is a mixture of sebum and pus. 

Treatment. — The treatment is surgical, and consists in open- 
ing, expressing the exudate, and curetting out the cavity, 
which is later cauterized. 

PEMPHIGUS. 

Definition. — By pemphigus is understood a skin eruption 
characterized by isolated vesicles, which may attain the size 
of a hen's egg or even larger, between which the skin appears 
intact. 

Etiology. — The causes are not known. 

Prognosis. — In animals the prognosis is good, most cases 
healing in about two weeks. 



SCABIES— MANGE— SCAB 259 

SCABIES. MANGE. SCAB. 

Definition. — Scabies is an eczema produced by minute 
insects and attended by intense itching. 

Occurrence. — As scabies is contagious it assumes at times 
an enzootic or even epizootic distribution. Particularly is 
this true of the scabies of sheep, which in a single state may 
affect thousands of animals and lead to great economic 
losses. 

Etiology. — Scabies is caused by a small spider-like mite 
which can rarely be seen with the naked eye, the mites 
belonging to the order acarina, class arachnoidea. They 
are from 0.2 to 0.8 mm. in size, provided with four pairs of 
legs and an undivided trunk. The males are smaller than the 
females. The females lay eggs which in about eight days 
hatch six-legged larvae. In eight days the larva? become sex- 
ually mature. The females live for three to five weeks, the 
males about six weeks. Under favorable circumstances mites 
may live as long as eight weeks, and under contrary condi- 
tions as short a time as two weeks. Infestation may be from 
direct contact or through intermediary agents, such as har- 
ness, grooming utensils, blankets, bedding, etc. 

Varieties. — Three varieties of mites are distinguished: (a) 
Sarcoptes, (b) Psoroptes, and (c) Symbiotes. A fourth 
species, the follicle mite, is usually not included under the 
mange mites. 

Sarcoptes Mite. — This is a burrowing parasite which lives 
in the Malpighian layer of the skin where it forms tunnels 
under the epidermis. It is the smallest species (0.2 to 0.5 
mm.), shaped like a turtle, with a head like a horseshoe and 
very short legs. Three varieties of sarcoptes occur in animals : 
(a) Sarcoptes scabei of the horse, (b) Sarcoptes squamiferus 
of the dog, and (c) Sarcoptes minor of the cat. 

Psoroptes, or Sucking Mite. — This minute insect lives 
upon the surface of the skin, and is nourished by the blood 
and lymph. It is the largest of the mites (0.5 to 0.8), and 
under favorable circumstances (on black paper, for instance) 
may be seen with the naked eye. Its head is pointed, legs 
very long, and feet provided with tulip-shaped suckers. Two 



260 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

varieties of this mite occur in animals : (a) Psoroptes com- 
munis of the sheep, and horse and more rarely in cattle and 
buffalo, (6) the Psoroptes caniculi of rabbits. 

Symbiotes or Scale-eating Mite. — This mite lives on the 
surface of the skin and on scales of epithelium. In size it 
stands between the Sarcoptes and the Psoroptes (0.3 to 0.5 
mm.). The head is short, blunt, almost round, and the legs 
long, provided with suckers. Two varieties belong to this 
species: (a) Symbiotes communis of horses and cattle, and 
(6) Symbiotes felis, canis, and cuniculi (cat, dog, rabbit). 

Mange of the Horse.— Forms. — On the skin of the horse 
all three forms of mange mites appear. 

Sarcoptic Mange. — Definition. — This is the most important 
form of mange of the horse. It attacks the skin of the body, 
neck, and head, and can become general. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are those of eczema (papules, 
vesicles, crusts), accompanied by severe itching, which causes 
the animal to rub, bite, and scratch itself, especially during 
warm nights. It leads to alopecia, thickening, folding of the 
skin, and in time to emaciation. Characteristic o£ mange is 
the tendency for the eczema to spread and the transmissibility 
to other horses and even to man. 

Diagnosis. — A positive diagnosis can be made only with 
the microscope. As the mites are in tunnels under the 
epidermis the scraping should be made deep enough to reach 
them, and as a number of mites found are generally limited, 
several slides should be examined before an opinion is 
given. 

Prognosis. — In this form of mange the prognosis is always 
doubtful, for unless circumscribed it may take several weeks 
or months of persistent treatment to eradicate the mites. 

Treatment. — Success in treating sarcoptes mange lies not so 
much in the agent used as it does in the thoroughness and 
persistency in the application. The following agents are 
recommended: Creolin (3 per cent.), creolin salve (1 to 25), 
and creolin liniment, which consists of: 



1$ — Creolini et sapon viridi aa 5iv 

Alcohol Oj 



SCABIES— MANGE— SCAB 261 

Tar liniment : 

1$ — Pix's liquida et flores sulph aa §xvj 

Sapon viridi and alcohol aa Oij 

As further agents may be mentioned tobacco decoction 
(5 per cent.) and sulphur salve: 

1$ — Flores sulph giij 

Potassii carbon 3hss 

Adipis suill Shj 

Besides the treatment of the patient it is always advisable 
to thoroughly disinfect the stable, stable utensils, harness, 
etc., which may reinfest. 

Psoroptic Mange. — This form of mange occurs in the 
most protected parts of the body, such as the mane, tail, 
sheath, medial surface of the hind limbs, region of the throat, 
etc. It may, however, spread over the whole body thus, 
resembling sarcoptes mange. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is made with the microscope. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is more favorable in this than 
in the sarcoptes form, as the mites are on the surface. How- 
ever, especially in cold weather, which interferes with the 
application of the treatment, the case may prove obstinate. 

Treatment. — Treatment is the same as for sarcoptic mange. 

Symbiotic Mange. — This form occurs about the fetlocks, 
especially under the flexion of the joint. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are similar to those of scratches 
(squamous and crustated eczema), but the affected parts are 
itchy, causing the animal to gnaw them and stamp its feet. 
At times the lesions may extend up the leg to the tarsal or 
carpal joints, but rarely higher. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is made with the microscope. 

Prognosis. — Prognosis is favorable. 

Treatment. — Usually a creolin salve or a tar salve suffices 
to produce a cure. 

Sheep Scab. — Mange of Sheep. — The most common form 
of mange in sheep, so-called sheep scab, is psoroptic mange. 
However, the sarcoptic and symbiotic mites also attack 
sheep. 



262 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

Psoroptic Mange. — Occurrence. — This form of mange or 
scab is widely prevalent in the United States. Through the 
efforts of the Bureau of Animal Industry, with the coopera- 
tion of the great sheep-grazing States (Colorado, Montana, 
Wyoming), sheep scab has been greatly reduced in the past 
few years. 

Symptoms.- — Psoroptic mange affects the parts of the 
skin which are covered with wool. It therefore usually 
appears in the shoulder region, along the back, croup, sides 
of the chest and neck. It does not involve the ventral chest 
or abdominal regions. 

The first symptoms noted are usually those of itchiness. 
The sheep are uneasy, bite and rub the affected skin. The 
wool soon becomes loose and tufted. The itchiness is most 
noticeable in hot weather, after exercise, in warm stables and 
at night. If the wool is separated and the skin examined red 
or yellowish papules the size of a hemp seed are noted; 
eventually vesicles or pustules, as well as thin, yellowish, 
fatty crusts and scabs, appear. By confluence large irregular 
areas are formed, covered with thick yellow crusts. The 
crusts or scales adhere to the wool and by its growth are 
elevated from the underlying skin. The wool soon becomes 
tufted and the surface of the fleece uneven; or it falls out, 
leaving bald areas, especially along the back and sides. In 
shorn sheep or on the bald areas the scales are dry and brown 
in color. The disease develops rapidly under the fleece, 
especially in stables, so that in six to eight weeks the whole 
body may be denuded of wool. When the whole trunk is 
involved on account of the loss of albumin, unrest, and inter- 
ference with feeding, the weaker sheep become anemic, emaci- 
ated, cachectic, and often die. This is especially true in 
winter when the sheep are stabled. After shearing and turn- 
ing out on grass temporary improvement is noted. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis depends upon finding the mites 
by scraping freshly infected areas where the scabs are soft, 
placing the scraping on a piece of black paper in the sun and 
with a hand lens noting the minute mites which are seen 
crawling toward the edge of the paper. Obviously a better 
view may be obtained through the microscope. In very old 



SCABIES— MANGE— SCAB 263 

cases (scabs hard and dry) or if dips have been used the mites 
are not numerous. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis in sheep scab is generally good, 
provided prompt and effective remedial measures are taken. 

Treatment.- — The treatment consists in dipping the whole 
flock in some solution which will destroy the parasites. 
Several solutions are recommended for this puropse: 

(a) Lime-sulphur dip, made by mixing eight pounds of 
fresh quicklime and twenty-four pounds of sulphur and boil- 
ing with thirty gallons of water for not less than two hours. 
All sediment should be allowed to subside before the liquid 
is placed in the dipping vat. Before using this mixture it 
should be diluted with water to make 100 gallons. 

(b) Tobacco-sulphur dip which is made with the extract 
of tobacco or nicotin. The strength of the mixture should be 
not less than 0.05 per cent, nicotin and 2 per cent, flowers of 
sulphur. For the first dipping of infected sheep the mixture 
should contain no less than 0.07 per cent, nicotin. 

(c) Coal-tar preparation to 50 to 75 parts water. Dipping 
solutions should be warm (110° F.). 

Sheep should be immersed at least once and should remain 
in the solution for at least two minutes. It is best to dip 
after shearing. Ten days later the entire flock should be 
dipped a second time. After dipping the flock should be 
placed where no scabby sheep have been for at least four or 
five weeks. 

Sarcoptic Mange of Sheep. — As this form of mange does not 
usually invade the wool-covered portions of the skin it is 
found mostly on the head about the lips, nose, face and ears. 
It is therefore known as "head mange." More rarely it 
involves the flexion surfaces of the carpi and tarsi. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are similar to those noted in 
the horse. Small papules, vesicles, and pustules appear which 
rupture and dry to form thin and later thick gray scabs; 
from rubbing the skin becomes swollen and creviced. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is good if treated early. In 
some cases the sheep are unable to eat. 

Treatment. — Treatment is the same as for sarcoptic mange 
in the horse. 



264 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

Symbiotic Mange in Sheep. — Symbiotic mange is very rare 
in sheep and appears around the fetlocks and coronets, 
usually of the hind feet. Besides an eczematous eruption 
there is pruritus, causing restlessness and stamping. In 
rare instances the scrotum or udder may be attacked. 
Healing usually occurs spontaneously when the sheep are 
turned out on grass. 

Cattle Mange. — In the ox the principal mange is the 
psoroptic. The favorite seats are the lateral surfaces and 
crest of the neck, base of the horns, withers and root of 
the tail. It rarely appears over the whole body. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are those of pruritus and the 
appearance on the skin of brownish-gray crusts and scabs, 
the skin becoming thickened and welted. The hair falls out 
over the infested regions. Excoriations of the skin may be 
caused by the patient rubbing the part. If generalized the 
patient becomes anemic, emaciated, cachectic and often dies 
of inanition. The disease is worse in winter when the cattle 
are stabled but improves in the spring when they are turned 
out to graze. 

Treatment.— Treatment is the same as for horse mange, 
avoiding, however, applications which contain mercury. 

Symbiotic Mange. This form occurs at the tail root, 
on each side of the anus, and also on the legs. In rare in- 
stances it may appear over the croup, loins, back, side of the 
thigh and udder. It is characterized by pruritus, scabs, 
squamae and loss of hair. It usually does not affect the 
animal seriously but is worse during winter than in summer. 

Treatment. — Treatment is the same as for psoroptic 
mange. 

Mange of Swine. — In swine the only mange is the sarcoptic. 
This is not a common skin disease in America. The favorite 
seats are about the head (eyes, cheeks, ears), although it may 
extend from these parts to the neck, trunk, and limbs. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are those of severe itching, 
with which is associated a squamous eczema, the skin being 
covered with bran-like scales which accumulate to form thick 
crusts. If diffuse the skin surface assumes a peculiar silvered 
appearance "as if strewn with guano." The underlying skin 



HERPES— RINGWORM 265 

is thickened and creviced. If diffuse and of long duration 
emaciation follows. It is difficult to find the mites under the 
microscope, as they are limited in numbers. 

Treatment. — The skin should be thoroughly scrubbed with 
green soap and water to soften the crusts. This may be 
followed by the use of sulphur ointment, creolin liniment, or 
a tar salve. 

Follicular Mange. — Occurrence. — This form of mange, 
which is common in dogs, where it assumes two forms, 
the squamous and the pustular, is rare in other animals, with 
the possible exception of the pig. 

Etiology. — The hair follicle mites, Acarus folliculorum, live 
in the sebaceous glands and hair follicles. Following their 
invasion pus cocci enter, leading to abscess formation. In 
swine the Demodex folliculorum (var. suis) is the offender. 
The region of the snout, neck, ventral portion of the chest, 
the abdomen and inner parts of the thighs are the favorite 
seats. In these regions pox-like pustules to hazel-nut-sized 
boils or abscesses as large as walnuts appear. In the centre 
of an abscess hundreds of the mites may be found. 

Diagnosis. — Diagnosis depends upon finding the mites 
under the microscope. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis in swine is not good, as the dis- 
ease is very obstinate. An operative treatment which con- 
sists in removing the affected skin is recommended. 



HERPES. RINGWORM. 

Definition.— A contagious skin disease due to a fungus and 
characterized by the formation of round, sharply defined 
areas covered with scales and short uneven hair stumps. 

Occurrence. — Ringworm is very common in cattle, especially 
during the winter season, when they are stabled. It is some- 
times, therefore, known as "barn itch." While more or 
less troublesome it is a benign disease. Horses are also 
affected with it, as are sheep and pigs. 

Etioloyg. — Ringworm is caused by the fungus Trichophyton 
tonsurans. This fungus is made up of threads (hyphee) 



266 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

which are interwoven to form mycelia and large, round, light- 
refracting spores which predominate. The fungus lives in 
the hair sac, where it produces an inflammation of the hair 
follicle, causing the hair to fall out, and also within the hair 
shaft, which it makes brittle, causing it to break off. In- 
fection is spread-by direct contact or through intermediary 
agents, such as posts, stall partitions, etc., against which 
affected animals have rubbed themselves. Harness, saddles, 
and grooming utensils are also carriers. 

Forms. — Four forms of herpes tonsurans are distinguished 
clinically, depending upon the species of animals attacked and 
the location and age of the lesion: (a) Herpes tonsurans 
which is characterized by round bald spots without inflam- 
mation of the skin. 

(b) Herpes circinatus, the centre healing but the periphery 
remaining diseased thus forming a hoop-shaped, circular 
lesion — hence the name " ringworm." (c) Herpes maculosis, 
occurring on the skin of old animals and leading to alopecia 
and a superficial chronic dermatitis with desquamation of 
the epidermis which forms slate-gray-colored, asbestos-like 
scales, (d) Herpes vesiculosus which attacks the thin skin of 
young animals (calves, lambs). This is a dermatitis with 
vesicle formation. The vesicles soon rupture forming thick 
yellow scaly scabs or crusts in the neighborhood of the mouth, 
face and eyes. 

Cattle. — In adult cattle herpes usually attacks first the 
head and neck, where it forms small, well-defined, round bald 
spots which by confluence may reach the size of an open 
hand. These areas are covered with grayish- white, asbestos- 
like crusts. On black skin the crusts are thicker than on 
white. The skin is sometimes thickened and creviced. 
Healing usually takes place under the crusts in two or three 
months. When there is much pruritus, causing rubbing and 
scratching, secondary lesions form, prolonging the course of 
the disease several months. 

Diagnosis. — A positive diagnosis can be made only with the 
microscope. In sucking calves herpes attacks the skin around 
the mouth. There appear round spots covered with yellowish 
scabs made up of bran-like scales. 



CONTAGIOUS PUSTULOUS DERMATITIS 267 

Horses. — The favorite seat of herpes in the horse is the 
head, back, shoulders, and croup. As a rule it assumes the 
form of round, well-defined bald spots the size of a 25-cent 
piece. Usually there is no pruritus. In rare instances a 
Herpes vesiculosus occurs on the sheath and inner surface of 
the hind limbs, with the formation of scabs and crusts. 

Treatment. — The treatment depends somewhat on the ex- 
tent and form of the eruption. When feasible it is advisable 
to shear off the hair and soften up the crusts with green soap. 
This may be followed by painting the areas with tincture of 
iodin or salicylic acid in alcohol (1 to 10). In horses mercuric 
ointment is useful. In obstinate cases nitric acid may be 
tried. However, most cases yield to treatment with any 
disinfectant. One attack of herpes produces a certain im- 
munity against subsequent ones. 

FAVUS. 

Favus is a contagious skin disease common in man but 
very rare in animals, caused by a fungus similar to the Tricho- 
phyton tonsurans and called the Achorion Schoenleinii. It 
forms round, thick scabs on the skin which being depressed 
in their centres are saucer- or shield-shaped. The scabs have 
a sulphur-yellow color, especially toward the centre. They 
appear upon the head, abdomen, and feet of carnivora. In 
fowls the comb and wattles are the favorite seats. The treat- 
ment is the same as for herpes. 

CONTAGIOUS PUSTULOUS DERMATITIS. CONTAGIOUS 

ACNE. 

Definition. — Contagious pustulous dermatitis is a benign 
pustular exanthema of horses which occurs in the regions of 
the harness and saddle rests. 

Etiology. — The disease is not very common, but occurs 
occasionally enzootically. The pustules are caused by the 
acne bacillus. Infection takes place usually through inter- 
mediary agents such as harness and saddles. 

Symptoms. — In the region noted round or oval swellings 
the size of a 25-cent piece appear, which in a day or so 



268 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

become covered with small hempseed-sized vesicles, which 
rapidly form pustules. The pustules usually break in twenty- 
four to thirty-six hours, forming thick, yellow, sticky crusts 
which heal in about two weeks. There is usually little or no 
pruritus. In severe cases boils or even abscesses may form 
as in simple acne. The abscesses may rupture, forming 
ulcers which heal under the scab. In rare instances an in- 
flammation of the lymph vessels and glands complicate the 
case. Healing in these cases requires one or two months. 
This form of contagious pustulous dermatitis may resemble 
skin glanders. However, even in' the most severe cases there 
are no general symptoms. 

Diagnosis. — The location, absence of itching and contagious 
character differentiate contagious pustulous dermatitis from 
acne or other suppurative conditions of the skin due to 
traumatism. 

Treatment. — The patient should not be worked, the sick 
isolated from the healthy, and the pustules opened and 
treated with antiseptics. The harness, saddle, and stable 
should be disinfected. 



HYPODERMA LINEATUM. WARBLE FLIES. 

The cattle bot, or warble fly, one variety of which appears 
in the United States, produces serious discomfort to cattle 
and damage to hides, due to the perforations which they 
cause in the skin of the shoulder, back, and breast. 

Life History. — The female gadfly deposits her eggs in 
summer, while the cattle are on pasture, on the legs, tail and 
body where they are licked off by the animal, reaching the 
mouth and throat where they hatch. The larvae perforate 
the gullet and, following the course of the bloodvessels in 
the mediastinal tissue, reach the vertebral foramina?, through 
which they pass into the vertebral canal, eventually emigrat- 
ing to the subcutaneous tissue of the back. In the subcutis 
they become encapsuled in a sac of connective tissue, forming 
pigeon-egg-sized enlargements which are called warbles. 
When fully developed the following spring they perforate the 



LICE 269 

skin, pass out through the openings, drop to the ground, into 
which they burrow and pupate, finally emerging as adult 
flies. As many as 50 to 100 of these larvae may perforate 
the skin, causing the hide, which is called "grubby," to be 
docked one-third in value on the market. Occasionally they 
may produce emaciation. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in applying turpentine 
to the opening over the warble. Those not killed by this 
method may be pressed out by hand and destroyed. 

Prevention. — Applying various disinfectants to the backs of 
cattle is of no value from a prophylactic standpoint. 



LICE. 

Definition. — Lice are blood-sucking parasites (haemato- 
pinus). Each one of the domesticated animals harbors its 
own species. They are frequently found on cattle (Hamia- 
topinus eury sternus) and horses (Hsematopinus equi) . How- 
ever, occasionally lice will pass from one host to another of a 
different species. Chicken lice, for instance, will attack 
horses and human beings. Lice are very prolific. It is said 
that a single pair may produce in three months 125,000 
individuals. Lice produce itching, loss of hair, and give the 
animal an unthrifty appearance. While they may be found 
on any part of the body they first appear about the neck. 
As they are large enough to be seen by the naked eye, if the 
light is good, the diagnosis is usually easy. Even the eggs 
or nits are visible as small ovoid bodies attached to the hairs. 

Treatment. — Several remedies will kill lice. For horses one 
of the most valuable is gray mercurial ointment. Creolin 
(2 per cent.) is also good. An infusion of tobacco made by 
boiling tobacco (Biij) in water (Oij) is recommended. A 
great favorite is kerosene emulsion, made by dissolving soft 
soap (Oij) in boiling water (Oij) and adding kerosene (Oj). 
This mixture should be churned or stirred violently and 3 
quarts of water added to it before using. Pure kerosene is 
too strong and causes loss of hair. Stavesacre seeds (§ij) 
boiled in water (Oij) is an efficient agent to destroy lice. 



270 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

TICKS. IXODOIDEA. 

Definition. — Ticks are skin parasites which, however, do 
not remain parasitic throughout life. The females especially 
attach themselves to the skin into which they bore. The most 
important tick is the Texas cattle tick (Margaropus annu- 
latus) which transmits the germ of Texas fever. While 
common on cattle in the Southern States it is only an occa- 
sional visitor in the North, where it is unable to withstand 
the cold winter. Ixodes reduvius, which is parasitic on sheep 
and cattle, is not uncommon. The same treatment recom- 
mended for lice will destroy ticks. (For eradication of the 
Texas fever tick see Texas Fever.) 

THE SCREW FLY. 

The screw fly (Compsomyia macellaria) is a small, bluish- 
green fly with a brown head and three black longitudinal 
stripes on the thorax. The female deposits her eggs in 
wounds, where they hatch in a few hours (larva?, maggots), 
the maggots burrowing into the tissue, where they remain for 
a week. They then escape from the wound, reach the ground, 
pupate, and change to adult flies. In some regions of the 
South they are very troublesome, infesting the smallest 
wounds and causing serious losses. 

Treatment. — Pure creolim should be injected into the 
wound. Fresh wounds can be protected by a tar covering. 

CHICKEN LICE. 

The red chicken louse (Dermanyssus gallinse) has as its host 
chickens and other feathered animals. It will, however, 
attack horses and cattle, producing eczema. In cattle it has 
been known to enter the ears, causing an external otitis. In 
rare instances lice penetrate the middle ear, causing symp- 
toms of cerebral excitement. 

SKIN FILARIA. 

Thread-worms, which are parasitic, invade the skin and 
subcutaneous tissue of animals. The following varieties are 
the most common : 



SKIN FILARIA 271 

Filaria Irritans. — This is a silver-white larva 2 or 3 mm. 
long, the adult form of which is unknown. It lives in the 
subcutaneous connective tissue of the horse and is the cause 
of a skin disease commonly known as "summer sores," or 
granular dermatitis. The lesion manifests itself first by little 
nodules which appear in the harness rests, legs, or other parts 
of the body. The nodules ultimately erupt, leaving behind 
ulcers which are covered with reddish-brown granulations. 
On careful examination small hempseed-sized, yellow, cheesy 
or calcified foci may be noted. In these centres the filarial 
larvse are found. The ulcers show a tendency to spread and 
are very obstinate to treat. This is due to biting and rubbing 
by the patient and the irritation caused by flies. The ulcers 
usually heal after the fly season, but recur the following 
summer. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists in preventing the animal 
from rubbing or biting the part and preventing flies from 
reaching it. It is recommended to paint the ulcer with a 
thin layer of sulphide of arsenic, which forms a dry scab, 
under which healing occurs. Picric acid (1 per cent.) and 
glycerin are also good. Other remedies are chloroform, ether, 
or iodoform applied daily. Sometimes the hot iron is effec- 
tive, as is curetting or even the total extirpation of the affected 
area. 

Filaria Hemorrhagica. — This is a fine thread-like worm 
28-70 mm. long which is parasitic and lives in the sub- 
cutaneous and intermuscular connective tissue of Oriental 
horses. It causes during the summer months skin hemor- 
rhages. The blood raises the epidermis or skin in the form 
of a hazel-nut-sized or small hematoma which ruptures in 
one or two hours, its contents flowing over the skin. Usually 
a number of these nodules occur close together so that the 
invaded area is covered with blood. The condition disappears 
in winter to recur the following summer. Healing usually 
occurs spontaneously. The disorder is not serious, although 
objectionable. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in washing the skin 
with an antiseptic and protecting the bloody area from the 
harness. 



272 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

LIP-AND-LEG ULCERATION OF SHEEP. 

Necrobacillosis. 

Definition. — Necrobacillosis is an inflammatory process 
which terminates in necrosis of the skin and mucous mem- 
branes attacking the mouth, lips, legs, feet and external 
genital organs of sheep. 

Occurrence. — The disease is closely allied to necrotic sto- 
matitis of calves and pigs. It attacks sheep on the Western 
ranges, particularly in Montana and Wyoming, where it 
sometimes assumes a malignant form, causing considerable 
losses through deaths, lost service of bucks, and abortion in 
ewes. While during favorable weather and with abundant 
feed the disorder is mild, where opposite conditions prevail 
it is often malignant, leading to the loss of from 10 to 20 
per cent, of the sheep herd. The disease has been introduced 
into the Eastern States by the importation of Western sheep. 
It also exists in England, on the continent of Europe, and has 
been reported from New Zealand. 

Etiology. — The cause of the disease is the Bacillus necro- 
phorus, which enters skin lesions often made by cactus or 
other sharp-pointed particles of plants. The disease is most 
frequent during cold seasons and among sheep which are 
pasturing among thistles, cacti and briers. It is transmissible 
both by natural and artificial inoculation. 

Symptoms. — From a clinical standpoint four forms are 
described: (a) the lip-and-leg, (b) the venereal, (c) the foot- 
rot, (d) the sore mouth of lambs. 

(a) Lip-and-leg Form. The first stages are those of acute 
inflammation of the skin, usually of the lips. Pustules develop 
which undergo puriform softening, erupt and lead to ulcers. 
The ulcers are usually covered with exudate which dries to 
form dark gray -colored crusts. By confluence a large, irregu- 
lar shaped scab forms along the lip margins and extending 
upwardly in front to the nasal openings. The lips are swollen 
and present a scabby or warty appearance. The appetite 
usually remains good, though the prehension of food is difficult 
owing to the sensitiveness of the lips. In some cases the 



LIP-AND-LEG ULCERATION OF SHEEP 273 

cheeks may also be involved or even the eyelids. Occasion- 
ally the mucous membrane of the nose and mouth is invaded. 
Quite commonly lesions occur on the legs. The favorite 
seat is about the coronet, under the fetlock or in the neighbor- 
hood of the fetlock-joint. The ulcers upon the legs are similar 
to those found upon the lips ; they are covered by a thick, dry 
crust which when removed exposes a granulating surface 
covered with pus. 

(b) Venereal Form. In this form the external genital 
organs of both males and females are involved. It may be 
associated with the lip-and-leg form, but not infrequently 
occurs independently. In males the skin of the sheath, espe- 
cially at its orifice, is inflamed. The first symptom is the ap- 
pearance of one or more light yellow-colored centres, necrotic 
areas, which appear at the junction of the skin and mucous 
membrane of the prepuce. Soon there develops an ulcer 
which usually extends outwardly over the skin rather than 
inwardly over the mucous membrane. By coalescence the 
whole swollen sheath may be covered with ulcers. Occasion- 
ally the pendant portion of the prepuce may slough. In 
wethers the penis is rarely, if ever, attacked. In bucks, how- 
ever, the necrosis attacks the penis, which swells ("big 
pizzle"), becomes ulcerous on its surface, and occasionally 
gangrenous, the distal portion of the organ not unrarely 
sloughing off. 

In ewes the ulcerations occur in the skin and mucous 
membrane of the vulva, the ventral surface of the tail, and 
the perineal region. Occasionally the vagina may be involved, 
leading to a discharge. 

(c) Foot-rot Form. — The foot-rot form involves at first the 
interdigital spaces, the erosions usually making their first 
appearance at the heel. The inflammation invades the hoof 
matrix, leading to the discharge of a thin ichor which has a 
very characteristic pungent, penetrating odor. The foot-rot 
form may attack any sheep in the herd irrespective of age or 
sex. 

(d) Sore-mouth Form. — This form is seen in lambs during 
the fall of the year. The symptoms are similar to those of 
the lip form in older sheep. The lips of the lambs swell, 

18 



274 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

prehension of food becomes difficult, and the patient falls off 
in flesh and remains stunted in growth. At the junction of 
the mucous membrane and skin of the lips, nodules or ne- 
crotic areas appear. By confluence large, diffuse, fissured 
scabs form, covering in some cases the whole muzzle. If 
the scabs are removed raw, bleeding surfaces or pus-covered, 
ulcerous areas are exposed. In some cases the inflammation 
spreads to the mucous membrane of the mouth, forming 
ulcers or soft red, fungoid proliferations. The expirium is 
very offensive, resembling that of Limburg cheese. 

Treatment. — Once the disease has broken out in a herd or 
band of sheep, treatment should be begun early and applied 
energetically. In milder cases of the lip-and-leg form the 
scabs and shreds of tissue from the diseased areas should be 
scraped off and antiseptics applied to the raw surface three 
or four times weekly. A mixture of creolin (5 parts), sub- 
limed sulphur (10 parts), mutton tallow, vaselin, or lard 
(100 parts) mixed to form an ointment has been found very 
serviceable. In aggravated cases the scab should be removed 
and all diseased tissue from the ulcer scraped away. The raw 
surface may then be touched with zinc chlorid (10 per cent.) 
or nitric acid (15 per cent.). These caustics should be applied 
very carefully. The unskilful and indiscriminate use of them 
will do more harm than good. As it will require a month or 
more to produce a cure in severe and chronic cases the expense 
of the treatment may exceed the value of the sheep. Such 
cases had best be dispatched. 

Where a large number of range sheep are affected with the 
leg or foot-rot form, hand treatment is not always feasible. 
In these cases the sheep may be waded through a trough con- 
taining creolin or sheep-dip solution (5 per cent.) three times 
a week. Bad and obstinate cases which do not yield to these 
foot baths may be hand-treated. In the foot-rot form it is 
often necessary to use the knife skilfully to remove all dis- 
eased or loosened horn. 

The venereal form of the disease requires careful treatment. 
In bucks the diseased penis should be forced out of the sheath 
and the necrotic areas on its surface carefully cauterized with 
zinc chlorid or nitric acid. This may be followed by daily 



BIGHEAD OF SHEEP 275 

injections of permanganate of potash (1 to 500) or a sheep- 
dip solution (1 per cent.). In females the same treatment 
may be applied to the vulva or vagina. Abscesses containing 
inspissated pus should be opened, their contents evacuated 
and antiseptics applied. Ulcers of the mucosa of the mouth of 
lambs may be treated with creolin (1 per cent.) or boric acid 
solution (3 per cent.). Advanced, aggravated cases which 
obstinately resist treatment should be killed. 

After-treatment consists in giving the sheep access to 
medicated salt (crude carbolic acid B iv, poured over ordinary 
barrel salt, 12 quarts, and thoroughly mixed). It is also 
recommended to dip all recovered animals before turning 
them out on uninfected pastures or premises. A complete 
disinfection of all pens, corrals, walls, partitions, racks, and 
troughs should be made. The manure and surface soil of the 
corral should be removed and the ground sprinkled with 
disinfectants. 

Prophylaxis. — Healthy sheep should not be permitted to 
pasture on infected ranges until a winter has passed, after 
which the pasture is safe. Obviously with range sheep this 
precaution cannot always be employed. No new sheep should 
be introduced into the herd without being subjected first to a 
two weeks' quarantine. If no cases of lip-and-leg ulceration 
develop in this time it will be safe to place them with the 
original flock. The sheep herd should be carefully supervised 
and frequently inspected to find any chance cases of this 
disease. All sick sheep should be immediately removed and 
if possible given proper hand treatment. 

BIGHEAD OF SHEEP. 

Definition.— Bighead is a peculiar condition affecting West- 
ern sheep and is characterized by the appearance of swellings 
about the head and ears. 

Occurrence. — Bighead is not an uncommon disease in the 
Western States where sheep-raising is an important industry. 
Cases are reported from Idaho, Nevada, Utah, and Wyo- 
ming. It resembles the so-called buckwheat poisoning (fago- 
pyrism) of Europe. The disease is not communicable. 



276 DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

Neither sheep nor other animals can be infected by natural 
or artificial means. While some outbreaks are comparatively 
mild, not infrequently the affection assumes a malignant 
form which leads to considerable losses, causing it to become 
a matter of importance to sheepmen. 

Etiology. — The cause of bighead has not yet been deter- 
mined. Outbreaks occur usually during the spring and early 
summer while the sheep are being driven from the winter to 
the summer ranges and before they are sheared. Climatic 
conditions evidently predispose to the disorder, which is most 
apt to appear following a cold, stormy night, especially if the 
sheep are driven the next day in the hot sunshine. The dis- 
ease is most apt to affect adult sheep; it is rarely seen in 
young lambs. The condition of the sheep seems to have little 
to do with the occurrence of an outbreak; it is as apt to 
attack the well nourished as it is individuals poor in flesh. 
Buckwheat feeding has failed to produce in experimental 
animals symptoms of the disorder. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms which precede the appearance 
of the swellings are jerking movements of the head; the sheep 
shakes its head and rubs it against objects. The eyesight 
seems to be impaired, the sheep often running into other 
sheep and objects found in its path. Symptoms of cerebral 
excitement are not uncommon, in some instances the sheep 
show maniacal phenomena. Obviously sheep so affected often 
leave the flock, become lost, and die of exhaustion and ex- 
posure, or become the prey of coyotes. 

Later it will be noted that the ears begin to turn red and 
become swollen. Finally the swellings extend over the cheeks 
and face, closing the eyes, or in some cases, if the retrobulbar 
tissue becomes involved, may force the eyeballs from their 
sockets. The swellings may become very tense and drops of 
serum ooze from them. In some cases the lips, cheeks, and 
tongue are so swollen that it is impossible for the animal to 
eat or drink. Dyspnea is a common symptom. The tem- 
perature ranges from 104° to 107° F. The skin often sloughs 
over the swollen areas, and the wool over the entire body may 
be shed. Pregnant ewes frequently abort. Sheep which 
recover are usually left permanently unthrifty. 



BIGHEAD OF SHEEP 277 

Treatment. — Internal treatment (belladonna, turpentine, 
strychnin, arsenic, digitalis) has been found useless. On the 
other hand, smearing the head of the affected sheep with 
vaselin or olive oil, especially if the sheep are permitted to 
rest in the shade, has been of service. Scarifying the swellings 
does no good, and exposes the parts to further infection. 

Prophylaxis. — The disorder is prevented by not driving the 
sheep too far or too rapidly during the heat of the day, espe- 
cially before shearing in the spring. Affected sheep should be 
dropped out of the herd and the entire band allowed rest in 
the shade if possible. Sheepmen, believing the trouble due to 
poisonous plants, often, when a case of bighead develops in a 
band, rush the sheep to get them away as rapidly as possible 
from the region in which the supposed poisonous plants exist. 
This in itself tends to produce the trouble they seek to avoid. 



PART XI. 
INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 

CHAPTER I. 
ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 

ANTHRAX. 

Definition. — Anthrax is an acute, febrile infectious disease 
caused by the Bacterium anthracis affecting all domesticated 
animals with the probable exception of fowls. It is character- 
ized postmortem by splenic enlargement and serohemorrhagic 
infiltration of the subserous and subcutaneous connective 
tissues. 

Occurrence. — Anthrax is a disease largely confined to per- 
manently infected districts. Generally speaking it is rare in 
the United States, occurring only sporadically in the North, 
although in some parts of the South, especially along the rich 
lowlands of the lower Mississippi, it appears enzootically, 
attacking numbers of horses and mules. The disease is more 
common in herbivora than in either omnivora or carnivora. 
Birds are probably never infected naturally, although the 
disease may be with difficulty artificially transmitted. The 
pigeon, however, forms an exception, being very susceptible 
to infection with anthrax cultures. 

Etiology.— The Bacterium anthracis, which occurs in the 
tissues in the form of rods and in the gastro-intestinal tract 
and outside the body in the form of spores. The spore 
possesses a remarkable vitality and may remain virulent for 
months in soil, manure, foodstuffs, water, and in the blood, 
hide, wool, or hair of animals which have died of the disease. 



280 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Natural Infection. — (a) Digestive Tract. — In animals the 
usual mode of infection is through the digestive tract, the 
spores being taken in with the food and water of infected 
districts. This applies particularly to grazing sheep and 
cattle, especially if feeding on low, wet pastures subject to 
overflow. Certain fields, notably those in which the carcasses 
of anthrax animals have lain or were buried (shallow graves), 
or contaminated with the droppings or blood of patients 
suffering from the disease, are especially dangerous in this 
regard. It is probable that healthy animals may carry spores 
in the digestive contents without becoming infected them- 
selves, their droppings, however, polluting the soil, drinking 
water, and forage, thus infecting other less resistant animals. 
The blood of the living or dead anthrax animal is also in- 
fective. Soil and water can be contaminated by the offal of 
tanneries, hair- or rag-sorting establishments. Flesh-eating 
animals can infect themselves by eating meat or blood con- 
taining anthrax spores. In this way dogs and swine take the 
disease. As fresh meat and blood usually contain only bacilli 
which are destroyed by the digestive juices, it is not as 
dangerous as when stale. However, if very large quantities 
are eaten, infection may follow, some of the bacilli escaping 
the destructive influences of the gastric fluids. In swine the 
crypts of the tonsils may serve as points of attack for the 
spores taken in with the food and water. Milk does not usually 
contain either spores or bacilli, but at times, especially when 
the milk is bloody, they may be present. 

(b) Respiratory Tract. — The inhalation of dried spores from 
contaminated dust, wool, hair, or rags is a common mode 
of infection in man. While this is also probable in animals, 
no proof is available. 

(c) Skin. — An infection through the intact skin is not prob- 
able. When the skin is wounded, however, it may follow. 
The prevailing enzootics of anthrax among horses and mules in 
the lower Mississippi valley are said to be induced through 
skin infection, the gad fly (Tabanidse), horse flies, and even 
mosquitoes being accused as carriers of the infection. Some 
authorities, however, deny insect transmission in anthrax. 



ANTHRAX 281 

Necropsy. 1 — As man is quite susceptible to anthrax, every 
precaution should be taken in holding necropsies to guard 
against infection. The blood, flesh and digestive contents 
should not be permitted to pollute the forage or soil, and 
carrion birds, dogs, etc., kept aloof until the carcass and offal 
are made innocuous. 

The cadaver is usually greatly bloated, rapidly decompos- 
ing and rigor mortis little developed. *The mucous mem- 
branes are cyanotic, the rectum protruding and dark blood 
flows from the natural openings. If swellings in the skin and 
subcutis are present they appear on cut surface hemorrhagic- 
gelatinous or, if older, lardaceous, the overlying skin dis- 
colored and in part necrotic. Throughout the body the 
organs show petechia?, ecchymoses and blood extravasations. 
Collections of blood-stained fluid are noted in the abdominal 
and thoracic cavities, and in the pericardium. The spleen is 
three to six times its normal size, the parenchyma black 
and soft, even fluid. Spontaneous rupture of the capsule 
sometimes occurs. The blood is dark, varnish-like, staining 
the fingers and little coagulated. The lining of the aorta is 
diffusely reddened. The intestinal mucosa, especially in the 
small bowel, is edematously swollen, jelly-like and sometimes 
several centimeters thick. Necrosis of the superficial layers 
is sometimes noted. Peyer's plaques and the solitary follicles 
are swollen, projecting into the lumen of the intestine as dark 
red elevations. The lungs are edematous, congested. The 
mucous membrane o'f the larynx is swollen, congested, and 
ecchymosed. The lymph glands are swollen and blood-shot. 

In the spleen pulp and blood, lymph glands and parenchy- 
matous organs anthrax bacilli are found. 

In swine the necropsy lesions are confined mostly to the 
throat. The spleen is quite often normal in this animal. 

Symptoms. — In general, anthrax is characterized clinically 
by its sudden appearance, stormy course leading to death in 
one or two days, high fever, severe general disturbance, 

1 The postmortem lesions vary greatly in anthrax. In peracute cases 
the changes are very little marked, and the bacilli not numerous. The 
description given above applies to the usual acute or subacute case and 
may be considered typical. 



282 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

tendency for petechia to appear on mucous membranes, 
bleeding from natural openings, skin edemas, colic, dyspnea, 
cerebral excitement, and the presence of the bacterium 
anthracis in the blood. 

Period of Incubation. — The period of incubation is from one to 
fourteen days. The symptoms vary greatly, depending upon 
the severity of the attack and the resistance of the patient, 
which factors largely determine the course of the disease. 
They also vary with the point of attack, depending on whether 
the lungs, bowel, or skin are primarily involved. It is cus- 
tomary clinically to classify anthrax as : 

(a) Peracute Anthrax ("Apoplectic or Explosive Anthrax," 
Anthrax Acutessimus) . — As a rule this form appears in the 
beginning of the outbreak. The animals are usually found 
dead, or die in a few minutes after symptoms of asphyxia, the 
patient dropping to the ground in convulsions, foam coming 
from the nostrils and blood from the natural openings. 

(b) Acute and Subacute Anthrax (Anthrax Acutus et Sub- 
acutus). — This form lasts usually ten hours to several days. 
The patient shows high fever from 105° to 107° F. The pulse 
is rapid, weak, and irregular, the heart beat tumultuous. 
The respirations are dyspneic and sometimes stertorous. The 
visible mucous membranes are cyanotic and dotted with 
petechise. The patient may at first show symptoms of cere- 
bral excitement, which are soon followed by stupor and 
vertigo. Quite often the patient is down, unable to rise. In 
some cases (especially in horses) marked colic symptoms 
occur, but bloating is rarely noted. In the ox it may occur. 
In the earlier stages there is constipation, the animal straining 
as if to defecate, the rectum protruding; bloody diarrhea 
usually follows. The urine in the latter stages may be dark 
red and contain blood. In milk-giving animals the milk flow 
stops during the high fever; in rare instances the milk is 
bloody and bitter to the taste. In pregnant animals abortus 
occurs. Death usually ensues under asphyxia. While re- 
covery is rare, toward the end of an outbreak a few cases 
may get well, the symptoms rapidly subsiding. 

(c) Cutaneous Anthrax (Malignant Carbuncle or Pustule). 
— This form is commonest in horses and mules. Acute, 



ANTHRAX 283 

edematous swellings appear on different parts of the body. 
The favorite seats are under the throat, on the chest, flanks, 
and loins. The swellings are at first hot and painful, but later 
become colder and less sensitive. They are usually flat and 
subcutaneous, and in the early stages the overlying skin and 
hair may appear normal. Thus they may be overlooked. 
When swellings occur in the throat, symptoms of edema of 
the glottis follow. In swine the disease usually involves the 
throat with swelling of the parotid and laryngeal regions, 
later extending to the face. The patient shows dyspnea and 
dysphagia. The mucous membranes are cyanotic and show 
petechia?; the same symptoms may also occur in the skin. 
Death results from asphyxia. 

Course. — The course in peracute cases, as noted, is very 
rapid, lasting only fifteen minutes to one hour. In acute cases 
it may last one to three days, and in subacute ones a week or 
more, exceptionally ending in recovery. In the horse the 
cutaneous and bowel (colic) forms seem to predominate; in 
the ox anthrax occurs as a general febrile disease with a ten- 
dency to bowel hemorrhages, skin swellings being rare. In 
the sheep the course is usually stormy, the disease rarely 
locating in special organs, and assumes the form of a pure 
septicemia. 

Diagnosis. — Intra mtam a diagnosis of anthrax can rarely be 
made with any degree of certainty. As a rule a necropsy 
must first be held and a bacteriological examination made of 
the blood and parenchymatous tissues (spleen pulp). Clin- 
ically, anthrax resembles certain forms of forage poisoning, 
hemorrhagic septicemia, black-leg, malignant edema, and 
Texas fever. Peracute cases might easily be confused with 
edema of the glottis, cerebral congestion (sunstroke), and 
acute pulmonary edema. Acute poisonings might also be 
taken for it (temperature high here only in the latter stages) . 
It is sometimes sufficient to draw blood from the suspected 
patient (ear or foot) and inoculate with it a guinea-pig or 
white mouse, which, if the blood contains anthrax bacilli, will 
succumb in twenty-four to thirty-six hours. The blood and 
spleen pulp will contain the capsulated rods, which may be 
determined by proper staining. 



284 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Prognosis. — The prognosis in anthrax is bad. The mortality 
is 70 to 90 per cent. In subacute cases recovery takes place 
occasionally, and usually quite unexpectedly, beginning on 
the second or third day. Nearly all peracute and acute cases 
die. In cutaneous anthrax an early surgical treatment of the 
carbuncle is occasionally life-saving. 

Treatment. — A medicinal treatment is rarely of value. In- 
ternally coal-tar products (creolin, lysol (5 j) five times daily) 
are recommended. Turpentine, chlorin water, hydrochloric 
acid, and calomel have been tried with small success. Sur- 
gically the carbuncles may be slit open and injected with anti- 
septics (bichlorid of mercury 1 to 2000 in alcohol for horses; 
iodin tincture in cattle). In infected districts the use of the 
Pasteur protective vaccination is recommended. As the 
vaccination material contains living though attenuated germs 
caution must be exercised in its application. It is possible to 
spread anthrax by its use if carelessly handled. Protective 
and curative inoculation with immune serum is employed in 
Europe and South America. A passive immunity lasting 
two or three weeks is obtainable by its use. When infection 
continues to threaten an active immunity is produced by later 
vaccinating with attenuated anthrax cultures. As in hog 
cholera a combined active and passive immunity may be 
acquired by the simultaneous injection of immunizing serum 
and attenuated anthrax culture. The "serum alone" treat- 
ment is employed when the animal is already diseased; the 
" simultaneous" injections usually before the disease becomes 
manifest. Reports concerning the value of anti-anthrax sera 
are conflicting. Occasional fatal anaphylactic phenomena 
have followed the inoculation. 

Prevention. — All anthrax cadavers should be either com- 
pletely cremated or buried at least six feet deep. Indiscrimi- 
nate transportation and opening of the carcasses should be 
avoided. If feasible they should be buried where they die. 
Infected fields should be tile-drained and cropped. Stagnant 
pools should be eliminated, as they not only harbor spores 
but form the breeding places of insects which may be carriers 
of infection. Hair, wool, hides, harness, stable utensils, etc., 
should be disinfected by using heat or a 2 per cent, formal- 
dehyd solution. 



MALIGNANT EDEMA 285 

Infected premises, barns, sheds, stables, etc., should be 
thoroughly disinfected by using chlorid of lime, or an abun- 
dance of quicklime in the form of whitewash or dry. The 
carcass should not be skinned, the flesh should not be fed to 
dogs or swine, and the use of the milk forbidden. 



MALIGNANT EDEMA. 

Definition.— Malignant edema is an acute, fatal, infectious 
disease, characterized by the formation of edematous swellings, 
which later become emphysematous and occur in the region of 
a wound infected with the specific anaerobic Bacillus cedematis 
maligni. 

Occurrence. — The disease is widely distributed. It affects 
mostly horses, following accidental or surgical wounds. In 
cattle it occurs from obstetrical operations, and in sheep may 
result from cuts received during shearing. In the United 
States it is one of the commonest wound-infection diseases 
extant. 

Etiology. — The Bacillus cedematis maligni, which is found in 
both the rod and spore. stages in soil, manure (droppings), 
dust, decomposing vegetable matter and poluted water. 

Natural Infection. — Horses and sheep seem most susceptible 
to the infection, while cattle and swine offer more resistance. 
The infection is always through a wound (surgical or acci- 
dental) in the skin or mucous membrane. In practice malig- 
nant edema most frequently follows surgical operations (poll 
evil, castration, phlebotomy), the use of the unsterilized 
hypodermic syringe, rough obstetrical manipulations, skin 
cuts from careless shearing of sheep, etc. It may also follow 
accidental wounds due to wood splinters, nails, or other pene- 
trating objects which carry the infection. Feeding and in- 
halation experiments with the bacilli and spores of malignant 
edema gave negative results. The intact skin and mucous 
membrane are not infectable. Infection through a necrotic 
area (ulcer) is probable. Normally granulating wounds are, 
however, very resistant to infection. Inoculations with pure 
cultures are not successful unless phagocytosis is overcome by 



286 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

mechanical (sand particles) or chemical agencies (lactic acid) 
or the toxins of other bacteria which may be present (staphy- 
lococci) . 

Symptoms. — In the neighborhood of the infected wound a 
rather diffuse edematous swelling appears. The swelling is 
at first painful, firm, and hot, but later becomes softer, less 
painful, and on palpation crepitates. It spreads rapidly and 
in a few hours can involve the whole body and head. In a 
horse so afflicted the patient assumes the appearance of a 
hippopotamus. With the advance of the external swelling 
dyspnea develops with foamy nasal discharge (lung edema), 
cyanotic mucous membranes, and rapid, weak, irregular 
pulse. The temperature is elevated early and does not sink 
to normal until the patient becomes moribund. 

In cows infected during obstetrical manipulations, in two 
to four days the lips of the vulva begin to swell, the swelling 
rapidly involving the perineum, thighs, and udder. There is 
an offensive brownish discharge from the vagina. The tem- 
perature is up and bloating and diarrhea noted. 

Diagnosis. — The cardinal symptoms of malignant edema 
are: rapid development, emphysematous character of the 
swellings, high fever, and fatal course. It resembles black- 
leg in cattle, but may be distinguished from this disease by 
the following: malignant edema usually affects the repro- 
ductive organs of cows at the time of parturition; it affects 
connective tissue rather than muscle, is not confined to young 
cattle, and appears in districts free from black-leg. Black-leg 
is common in the United States, and occurs enzootically, 
while malignant edema is rare in cattle and is sporadic. It 
would hardly be confused with phlegmons resulting from pus 
infection. Such swellings do not develop so rapidly, do not 
crepitate, and are not usually fatal. Ordinary emphysemas 
of the skin which accompany rib-fracture, pulmonary emphy- 
sema, or wounds (median neurectomy, trocaring, intentional 
inflation of the scapular region to conceal muscular atrophies) 
are not attended by fever and comparatively benign in course. 
The postmortem emphysema noted in parenchymatous organs 
in delayed necropsies during hot weather would hardly 
mislead a careful observer. 



BLACK-LEG 287 

Course and Prognosis. — The course of malignant edema is 
usually rapid, death resulting from pulmonary edema in 
twenty-four to sixty hours. The prognosis is bad, 95 per cent, 
of the cases die. Recovery can be expected only in mild 
infections and when proper treatment has been prompt. 

Treatment. — The treatment is surgical, and consists in 
slitting the swellings long and deep to allow oxygen to enter 
the tissue. A thorough disinfection of the incisions should 
follow while subcutaneous injections of iodin tincture may be 
made in the neighborhood of the swellings. Hot applications 
should be avoided. 

In France, Leclaniche and Valler have practised preventive 
inoculations with attenuated spores from edematous fluid 
and cultures. Good results are claimed. Of scientific interest 
is the fact that such inoculations do not immunize against 
black-leg. 

BLACK-LEG. 

Definition. — Black-leg is an acute infectious disease of 
young cattle, due to a specific bacillus and characterized by 
fever and the formation of emphysematous swellings involving 
muscular groups in various parts of the body. It is not 
directly contagious. 

Occurrence. — While, generally speaking, black-leg has a 
world-wide distribution, outbreaks occur usually only in 
certain so-called black-leg districts. In this respect it re- 
sembles anthrax, with which it was long confused. In the 
United States the Western States suffer most, although 
sporadic outbreaks have been observed in the Central and 
Eastern States. The Southern Atlantic and Eastern Gulf 
States are said to be free. In some of the Western States 
(Kansas, Dakotas, Nebraska) the animal losses from black- 
leg exceed those from all other diseases combined. The 
worst infected area on this continent seems to be that 
bounded north and east by the Missouri and Mississippi 
Rivers and west by the Rocky Mountains, the great cattle 
country. 

Etiology. — The Bacillus gangrsense emphysematosa?, an 
anaerobe which occurs in soil, water, and in infected districts 



288 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

in the droppings of cattle. Morphologically and culturally 
the black-leg bacillus so closely resembles the malignant 
edema bacillus that differentiation is very difficult. 

Natural Infection. — (a) Through wounds in the skin and 
mucous membranes. Stubble, thorns, spines, barbed wire, 
etc., causing small punctured wounds, which on account of 
their character are most apt to become infected with soil, 
etc., containing the rods or spores. 

(b) Through the digestive tract from the ingestion of con- 
taminated food and water. The presence of the black-leg 
tumor in the throat, bowels, and other internal organs, and 
the occurrence of outbreaks in stable-fed animals speak for 
this mode of infection. The disease is miasmic and does not 
spread from animal to animal. Black-leg carcasses, however, 
if not rendered harmless by cremation or deep burial, con- 
tribute toward the perpetuation of the infection by reinfecting 
the soil. 

Symptoms. — Black-leg is seen almost exclusively in cattle. 
Probable cases in sheep and swine have been recorded. Opin- 
ions differ concerning its occurrence in horses, but no authentic 
data in this regard are available. Black-leg is a disease of 
young, full-blood, or high-grade cattle. It is rarely noted in 
animals under' six months or over two years of age. The 
period of incubation is usually one to three days, occasionally 
longer (five davs). The symptoms are both (a) general and 
(6) local. 

General Symptoms. — Fever, the temperature reaching 107° 
F., refusal of food, suspended rumination, and great mental 
depression. Quite often the first symptom noticed is lame- 
ness in one limb. 

Local Symptoms. — Following or sometimes preceding the 
general symptoms, external swellings appear in the region of 
the thigh, croup, loins, shoulder, breast, and throat. While 
at first small, the tumefactions rapidly increase in size until 
a large portion of the body is involved. In rare cases the 
swellings may be internal and located in the tongue or 
pharynx or bowel (colic symptoms) . At first the tumors are 
firm, hot, and tender, but later, provided the animals live 
long enough, cooler, non-sensitive, the overlying skin hard 



BLACK-LEG 289 

and dry, and on palpation marked crepitation is noted. When 
the tumors are incised, a bloody, foamy fluid of a peculiar 
sweetish, fetid odor is discharged. The periphery and en- 
vironment of the swelling are edematous. The lymph glands 
are swollen, and may be felt under the skin as firm nodes 
at times, the size of a goose egg. As the swellings enlarge 
the symptoms become more pronounced, the patient shows 
marked dyspnea, is unable to rise, muscular tremors and even 
violent convulsions occur, the temperature rapidly falls, and 
death follows. 

Course. — The course is rapid and fatal. Most patients die 
in from twelve to forty-eight hours. Isolated cases may 
linger several days (mild invasion, high resistance), then die, 
or in rare instances recover. 

Diagnosis. — Black-leg is a disease easily diagnosed, pro- 
vided the typical swellings are in evidence. As a rule the 
owner or ranchman recognizes it without professional aid. If 
the characteristic emphysematous enlargements are absent, 
however, as is common in the first cases of some out- 
breaks, a diagnosis intra vitam is very difficult. Black-leg 
may be confused with malignant edema and anthrax (see 
these) . 

Necropsy. — The cadaver is greatly bloated and swollen, 
especially about the tumors. When the swellings are cut into, 
a foamy, dark, fluid flows out. The affected muscle is of a 
dirty brown to blackish color, very friable, and often smells 
like rancid butter. The blood is dark colored but coagulates 
readily. In the serous cavities blood-stained fluid is found. 
The lymph glands corresponding to the tumors are swollen 
and blood-shot. The spleen is usually normal. The charac- 
teristic postmortem lesions are: normal blood, normal spleen, 
and emphysematous swellings. 

Prognosis. — In young cattle fully 98 per cent. die. In older 
individuals a few recover. 

Treatment. — A medicinal treatment is useless. Surgical 
intervention as recommended in malignant edema is rarely 
advisable except in very valuable individuals. It is further- 
more a menace, as the discharge from the incisions spreads 
the infection. 
19 



290 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Prophylaxis. — When an outbreak occurs all cattle two years 
old and under should be promptly removed to a preferably 
higher and drier pasture. In stable-fed victims a change to 
known uninfected food is imperative. The dead should be 
disposed of as recommended under Anthrax. Exposed ani- 
mals should be vaccinated which successfully protects against 
serious infection. Black-leg vaccines are now obtainable 
from many State experiment stations, the Bureau of Animal 
Industry, and several commercial houses dealing in biological 
products. 

Application. — The vaccine is administered by injecting it 
under the skin, the patient being properly secured. Usually 
the needle is inserted in the thin, loose skin just in front of 
the shoulder. Previous disinfection is not necessary, but the 
needle and syringe must be first sterilized. The dose will 
depend upon the vaccine used. Cattle may be vaccinated 
any time of the year. Cattle already infected should not be 
treated; the vaccine has no curative value. Hiefers in ad- 
vanced pregnancy should not be vaccinated. Revaccination 
may be practised with safety in two weeks. The immunity 
conferred reaches full development in eight to ten days, dur- 
ing which time the patients pass through the negative phase, 
and are therefore more susceptible to infection than if they 
had not been vaccinated. The immunity lasts from twelve 
to eighteen months. 

BRAXY. GASTROMYCOSIS OVIS. 

Definition. — An infectious disease of sheep characterized by 
its short, fatal course, and due to a specific anaerobic bacillus 
resembling the black-leg bacillus. 

Occurrence. — Braxy has not yet been reported in the United 
States. In Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Germany, and Scot- 
land it is common, leading to great losses among yearling 
lambs. The disease is rarely seen in suckling lambs or in 
sheep over two years of age. While sporadic cases may occur 
during the summer months when sheep are on pasture, serious 
outbreaks take place during the late fall and early winter 
months after the sheep have been returned to the fold for 



BRAXY—GASTROMYCOSIS OVIS 291 

the winter. Peculiarly, outbreaks seem more common fol- 
lowing a heavy frost. 

Etiology. — Braxy is due to the Bacillus gastromycosis ovis, 
an anaerobe which usually carries a spore near one end, pro- 
duces gas and stains according to Gram. The germ is patho- 
genic to guinea-pigs, rabbits, and pigeons. While subcutane- 
ous inoculations generally produce the disease in susceptible 
sheep, feeding experiments with this bacillus have given 
negative results. 

Natural Infection. — Probably through wounds (in upper 
digestive tract ?) and possibly through the digestive tract with 
food. The disease is not thought to be spread by drinking 
water. 

Necropsy. — In peracute cases few if any postmortem 
changes can be noted. In acute cases usually the principal 
lesions are found in the abomasum and duodenum, the mucous 
membrane of which is swollen, edematous, and spotted with 
occasional bluish-red hemorrhagic areas. Necrotic patches 
have been described. The blood is dark but readily coagu- 
lates, and the spleen not enlarged. The liver and kidneys 
show parenchymatous degeneration. In the body cavities a 
serohemorrhagic exudate collects and the subcutaneous con- 
nective tissue is edematous. Decomposition occurs rapidly 
and emphysema of the parenchymatous organs is commonly 
found in delayed necropsies. 

In the diseased mucous membranes, the infiltrated sub- 
mucosa, in the fluid of the body cavities, blood, and parenchy- 
matous organs the specific germ is found. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is two or three days. 
The course of braxy is so rapid and fatal that clinical symp- 
toms are rarely observed by the veterinarian. Even in those 
cases which may be examined clinically the symptoms are not 
particularly characteristic. It may be noted that the affected 
sheep are restless, alternately lying down and getting up 
suddenly, as if in pain. There may be slight bloating, arched 
back, and pendent head. When artificially injected sub- 
cutaneously the injected limb is dragged behind. The sheep 
champs the jaws, churning the saliva into foam. It usually 
leaves the rest of the herd, is very listless, and depressed. In 



292 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

some outbreaks diarrhea is an early symptom. The tempera- 
ture is elevated (105° to 108° F) and the respirations dyspneic. 
Usually after a couple of hours the patient falls over, becomes 
comatose, and dies. 

Diagnosis. — Braxy is often confused with anthrax, especially 
when it occurs in anthrax districts. It might also be mistaken 
for black-leg or for malignant edema. By carefully weighing 
the history, clinical symptoms, and bacteriological findings, 
error in diagnosis is avoided. 

Course and Prognosis.— The course is rapid; usually in from 
fifteen to eighteen hours the patients die. The prognosis is 
bad; fully 98 per cent, succumb. 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment has not proved of value. 
Separation of the living, deep burial, or cremation of the dead 
and a thorough disinfection of the barns, pens, yards, etc., 
are indicated. 

Protective Inoculation. — Nielsen and Jensen have employed 
protective inoculation to combat braxy, the former using 
dried, powdered kidney substance from a fatal case, while the 
latter used either treated blood-serum cultures or blood serum 
from artificially immunized horses or cultures one month old 
which were grown in sugar bouillon. Apparently good results 
have been obtained in Iceland with preventive vaccination 
(see Bacteriology). 

SWINE ERYSIPELAS. 

Definition. — Swine erysipelas is an infectious disease due to 
a specific microorganism. It has a varied course and appears 
clinically as an acute septicemia, a secondary skin exanthema, 
or a chronic, valvular heart disease. 

Occurrence. — On the continent of Europe the disease is 
wide-spread, occurring during the hot months, and in latter 
years has assumed a more serious form than formerly. In 
Great Britain swine erysipelas is a benign disease, appearing 
in the skin form and, as yet, has not assumed serious propor- 
tions. To date it has not been reported in the United States. 
In the so-called "diamond disease," so commonly found in 
American abattoirs, erysipelas bacilli have not yet been 
determined. 



SWINE ERYSIPELAS 293 

Etiology. — The Bacterium erysipelatis, a fine bacillus found 
in the acute form of the disease in the blood, skin, and lymph 
glands. In the chronic form they are found in the dis- 
eased tissue, particularly in the valvular vegetations in the 
heart. 

Natural Infection. — (a) Via the mouth with food and water 
contaminated with the feces and urine. The blood and flesh 
are also infectious. 

Q>) Via wounds. The disease is usually first introduced by 
infected hogs or by apparently healthy "germ carriers," 
swine which have recently recovered from erysipelas but still 
carry germs in the bowels and tonsils. Fields on which the 
bodies of dead hogs have lain or were not buried deep enough 
or where the feces and urine of diseased animals are deposited 
are most dangerous sources of infection. The disease is not 
directly contagious, but is disseminated largely through soil 
infection. Hogs from three months to one year are most 
susceptible. Sucklings and old animals are usually quite 
resistant. 

Necropsy. — In the acute form very little change is noted 
postmortem. The small intestines are catarrhally inflamed. 
Peyer's patches and the solitary follicles are swollen and small 
ulcerations are noted. The spleen is somewhat enlarged. 
Ecchymoses and petechia? are prone to appear in the mucous 
and serous membranes, especially in the epi- and endocardium 
and in the subcutaneous connective tissue. The kidneys are 
swollen, and on section the cortex is grayish-red, dotted with 
punctiform hemorrhages, the medullary substance dark. As 
a rule the lungs are not involved. In chronic cases the prin- 
cipal lesion is found in the heart, the atrioventricular valves 
showing lesions of verrucous or ulcerous endocarditis. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is three to five days. 
The clinical symptoms vary, but the following forms are 
fairly well distinguished. 

(a) Skin Form. — Urticaria Type ("Diamond Disease?"). 
— After a short period, during which the hog seems languid 
and fails to eat well, there appear in the skin on the sides of 
the chest, back, neck and legs, sometimes all over the body, 
violet-colored spots and sometimes vesicles. The spots are 



294 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

often rectangular or rhomboid in form and are elevated above 
the surrounding skin. They are usually about the size of a 
50-cent piece, larger by confluence. Sometimes vesicles occur 
upon them which break, the discharge drying to brownish 
crusts. As a rule symptoms of fever, languor, anorexia, con- 
stipation, paraplegia, conjunctivitis, and vomiting attend the 
exanthema. The skin eruption usually disappears in from one 
to two weeks. In some cases necrosis of the skin, especially 
of the ears, tail, or digits takes place, leading to sloughing 
and healing, with pronounced scar formation. 

(b) Septicemia Form.— This form very much resembles the 
septicemia (explosive) form of hog cholera (see this). The 
skin is usually highly reddened, especially on pendent portions 
of the body. The red colorations have an erythematous char- 
acter, finger pressure temporarily removing them. Vesicle 
formation and necrosis may also occur. In severe cases there 
is paraplegia, cyanosis, and great dyspnea (lung edema) . The 
patients usually die in three or four days or may live a week. 
In some cases the symptoms subside on about the third day, 
the animal recovering or the disease assuming the chronic 
form. 

(c) Chronic Form. — In this type symptoms of chronic 
endocarditis (see this) and gangrene of the skin occur. It is 
noted in hogs which have passed through the acute stage and 
seem to be recovering. In about one or two months, however, 
they begin to droop, lose appetite, cough, become dyspneic, 
cyanotic, develop heart palpitation ("thumps")? and carry 
a mild fever. Gradually becoming weak, after several weeks 
they die of inanition. 

Prognosis.— The skin form is benign, practically all recover- 
ing. In the septicemic form the mortality is 60 to 90 per cent, 
and chronic cases are generally fatal. 

Diagnosis.— Swine erysipelas is easily confused with hog 
cholera. Clinically the differences are not marked. As a rule, 
however, the lungs and bowels are less affected in erysipelas 
and the reddening of the skin is intra- rather than extra- 
vascular. Bronchopneumonia with pleuritis and button-like 
ulcers in the cecum or necrosis of the intestinal mucous mem- 
brane are lesions not seen in swine erysipelas. In doubtful 



HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA 295 

cases a bacteriological examination of the blood should be 
made. 

Treatment. — A medicinal treatment is useless. 

Prevention. — As the bacillus of this disease has a saprophytic 
existence in soil, and is often present in the tonsils and bowels 
of "germ carriers/' it is difficult to eradicate. However, the 
usual causes of infection, as noted, are affected swine, living 
or dead, and therefore susceptible hogs should be isolated 
from them. Infected pens and hog lots should be thoroughly 
disinfected, the droppings collected and rendered innocuous. 
Hog pastures contaminated with the germs should be culti- 
vated. Carcasses should be burned or buried deep. 

Protective Inoculation. — As one attack of erysipelas pro- 
duces immunity, vaccination, much practised in Europe, is 
feasible. Two methods are employed : one known as that of 
Pasteur, which requires a double vaccination, the first fol- 
lowed by a second in twelve days; the other is known as 
the simultaneous (serum and cultures together) method of 
Lorenz and of Laclaniche, which also requires that the 
vaccination be once repeated. 



HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA. PASTEURELLOSIS. 

Under the collective term "hemorrhagic septicemia" is 
gathered a group of diseases characterized by general septi- 
cemic infection (blood spots appearing in the skin, serous 
membranes, bones and joints), and in the tissues one of the 
varieties of a belted or coco bacillus known as the Bacterium 
bipolaris septicum or the Bacterium Pasteurella. 

Under this head are usually included the following diseases : 
chicken cholera, rabbit septicemia, hemorrhagic septicemia of 
cattle, septic pneumonia of calves, the buffalo plague, hemor- 
rhagic septicemia of sheep, takosis of goats (?), swine plague, 
and enzootic pneumonia of shoats. 

At the present time, for lack of sufficient experimental data, 
it is difficult to decide just what relationship the bipolar bac- 
teria bear to the diseases they are supposed to cause. The 
fact that the bipolar bacilli are found in the tissues and body 



296 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

fluids after death is not proof that they were the primary 
cause of the disease present. Furthermore, they are not 
infrequently met with in animals which showed no symptoms 
of disease. Before the discovery and use of the Dorset serum, 
to prevent cholera in hogs, the now pectoral form of this 
disease was considered by nearly every authority to be a 
separate and distinct malady, and known as " swine plague." 
Notwithstanding the fact that so-called "swine plague" was 
clinically associated with practically all cholera outbreaks, 
provided they lasted long enough, and usually formed part of 
the lesions on examining the cholera carcass, the unity of the 
conditions was not admitted. With the introduction, how- 
ever, of a successful preventive treatment for cholera, based 
upon an ultramicroscopic organism as the etiological factor, it 
was soon recognized, as both diseases were equally protected 
against, that in all probability the bipolar bacillus was merely 
a secondary invader. It is quite possible that further experi- 
ment, which is much desired, will show that the relationship 
of the bipolar bacillus to the other diseases of this group will 
be similar to that experienced in hog cholera. For the present, 
however, and until further reliable data are available, the 
varieties of the bacterium may be considered etiological 
factors in the remaining diseases of this group. 

Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Cattle (Cornstalk Disease, 
Bronchopneumonia. Game and Cattle Plague). — Definition. — 
Hemorrhagic septicemia is a fatal, infectious disease of cattle, 
having an acute or subacute course, which assumes a variety 
of forms in that it may involve the nervous system, skin, 
lungs, and bowels. It is probably caused by the Bacterium 
bovisepticum. 

Occurrence. — The disease is widely spread, occurring in all 
parts of the world. In the United States it has been reported 
from all sections, but seemingly is more prevalent in the West 
and Northwest than elsewhere. Several outbreaks have 
occurred in Ohio. Besides cattle it attacks wild animals, 
especially deer. 

Etiology. — The Bacterium bovisepticum, a variety of the 
coco bacillus, is found in soil and water and in the respiratory 
organs of apparently healthy cattle. 



HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA 297 

Natural Infection. — (a) Via digestive tract, the germs being 
taken in with the food and water. 

(b) Via wounds through the skin and mucous membranes. 

(c) Via respiratory organs (proved in rabbits) . The hides 
and flesh of infected animals spread the disease. The blood 
in the later stages is infectious and probably the feces and 
urine. 

Necropsy. — Varies somewhat with the type, but the fol- 
lowing lesions are fairly constant: A marked congestion of 
the parenchymatous organs. Subcutaneous, submucous, and 
subserous hemorrhages generally distributed along the bowels 
(serous surface), over the spleen capsule, kidneys, bladder, 
diaphragm, peri- and epicardium, synovial membranes, and 
meninges. The heart, liver, and kidneys show cloudy swell- 
ing. The spleen is not enlarged. The urine is sometimes 
blood-tinged. In the skin (exanthematous) form the subcutis 
of the region of the throat and neck shows gelatinous. infiltra- 
tion spotted with blood patches. The mucous membranes of 
the digestive tract are swollen and show petechias. The 
tongue is swollen, and submucous infiltrations are noted in 
the pharynx and larynx. The bowel contents are usually 
semiliquid and frequently chocolate colored. Blood appar- 
ently normal. In the pectoral form serofibrinous pleuritis 
with bronchopneumonia is found. The interlobular septa are 
markedly infiltrated, forming broad, yellow strands. Blood 
extravasations occur under the pleura. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is short, usually one 
or two days. The symptoms are not particularly character- 
istic and quite varied, depending upon whether or not the 
intestinal, exanthematous, or pectoral is present. 

Intestinal Form. — The animal appears dull and shows a 
staggering gait and loss of sensitiveness in the skin; in some 
cases the neck is bent to one side (torticollis), the muscles of 
the neck and jaw twitching; nystagmus is also seen. Occa- 
sionally forced movements are noted, the patient rapidly 
wheeling in a circle, using the hind feet as a pivot (clock-hand 
movements). During these paroxysms, which occur inter- 
mittently, the patient may utter lowing cries. Diarrhea may 
or may not be present. There is drooling from the mouth and 



298 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

a persistent nervous champing of the jaws. The tongue is 
swollen and cyanotic. High fever is noted, in some cases the 
temperature, especially after a nervous paroxysm, reaching 
108° F. and over. Some authorities, however, have found 
the temperature normal or even subnormal. 

Exanthematous Form. — This form is less frequent in Amer- 
ican outbreaks. Inflammatory edema of the head, neck, 
throat, and dewlap appear. The swellings may extend to the 
body and limbs. They are pronouncedly hot and painful. 
Conjunctivitis with profuse lacrimosis may be present. The 
tongue is edematously swollen, filling the whole mouth cavity, 
and is cyanotic. Drooling is noted. The patient is dyspneic, 
the mucous membranes dark colored and show petechia 3 . 
Death results from asphyxia or severe enteritis. Intestinal 
symptoms are commonly noted in this form. 

Pectoral Form. — The symptoms of this form are those of an 
acute or subacute bronchopneumonia with pleuritis. The 
patients stand with arched back, have a painful cough and 
nasal discharge. Dulness is noted on percussion. Bronchial 
sounds, rales, and rhonchi are heard on auscultation. The 
patient is dyspneic, appetite is lost, and rumination suspended. 
The constipation is later followed by diarrhea, inanition, and 
death. 

Differential Diagnosis. — Hemorrhagic septicemia might be 
confused with anthrax, Rinderpest and the subacute or 
chronic pectoral form with contagious pleuropneumonia of 
cattle. It might also resemble black-leg. The absence of 
splenic enlargement, the normal appearance of the blood, and 
the absence of the anthrax bacillus differentiate it from 
anthrax. Rinderpest does not occur in the United States, 
but is found in the Philippines. Outbreaks of Rinderpest can 
usually be traced to an imported source (diseased cattle), 
and in this disease, unlike hemorrhagic septicemia, a marked 
ulcerous inflammation of the mucous membrane of the eye- 
lids, respiratory and digestive tract is present. Contagious 
pleuropneumonia no longer exists in this country. Macro- 
scopically the lesions of the pectoral form of hemorrhagic 
septicemia and this disease may be almost identical. In such 
cases only the use of bacteriological methods can decide 



HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA 299 

(finding the bipolar bacterium; animal inoculations). In 
typical cases of black-leg there should be no difficulty in 
differentiation, as emphysematous surface swellings are not 
seen in hemorrhagic septicemia. Furthermore, the latter dis- 
ease affects cattle of all ages while black-leg is essentially a 
disease of young animals (see this) . 

Course. — The course varies with the form the disease 
assumes, the severity of the infection and the resistance of 
the individual patient. Acute cases last only a few hours 
(6 to 20) while less acute ones may linger a week or even 
longer. Those affected with the lung form usually live longer 
than in the intestinal or exanthematous forms of the disease. 

Prognosis. — Very bad. Fully 90 per cent. die. 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment is useless. In outbreaks 
removing the sick cattle to other pastures is recommended. 
If the disease occurs in a stable, disinfection is in place. As 
a rule, after a certain number of cattle in a herd die the disease 
stops of itself. The carcasses should be disposed of as recom- 
mended under Anthrax. The dried hides are said to be 
harmless. 

Septic Pleuropneumonia of Calves. — Definition. — This dis- 
ease is evidently a form of hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle. 
It is a specific pleuropneumonia of calves due to a bipolar 
bacillus. 

Occurrence. — The disease is widely distributed and not 
infrequently occurs simultaneously with an outbreak of 
hemorrhagic septicemia of older cattle. 

Etiology. — The Bacterium vitulisepticum which seems iden- 
tical with the germ Bacterium bovisepticum. 

Natural Infection. — Infection takes place through the di- 
gestive tract, with food and water polluted with the discharge 
of affected calves. 

Necropsy. — The principal changes are bronchopneumonia 
with serofibrinous pleuritis. Catarrhal bronchitis and laryn- 
gitis are also present. Gastro-intestinal catarrh, swelling of 
the lymph glands, and cloudy swelling of the parenchymatous 
organs attend. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are those of acute or subacute 
pneumonia. The affected calves are listless, the hair coat 



300 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

staring, muzzle dry, abdomen tucked up and the general 
appearance unthrifty. A common symptom is a short, some- 
what painful cough emitted when the animals are disturbed 
or driven from the barn into the outside air. The appetite 
may be retained. The temperature is elevated and the res- 
pirations dyspneic. Palpation over the thorax induces pain. 
On percussion there is dulness in the lower part of the chest, 
and on auscultation either the sounds of breathing are absent 
or bronchial tones may be heard. More rarely friction sounds 
are evident. The patients gradually become weaker, and in 
most cases either die in one or two weeks, or there develops 
chronic pulmonary phthisis. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is uncertain; the mortality varies 
but averages about 50 per cent. 

Treatment. — The medicinal treatment is symptomatic, as 
recommended in pneumonia. It is advisable to separate the 
affected animals from the healthy, to bury deep or cremate 
the dead, and thoroughly disinfect the barns and premises. 
As a prophylactic measure, inoculating the calves with blood 
serum derived from an artificially immunized horse treated 
with cultures of the bipolar bacillus has been practised with 
apparent success. 

Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Sheep. — Definition. — Hemor- 
rhagic septicemia of sheep manifests itself in acute cases as a 
general septicemia. In subacute and chronic cases it is char- 
acterized by nasal and eye discharge, also by pleuropneu- 
monia. It is caused by the Bacterium ovisepticum. 

Occurrence. — The disease occasions among lambs consider- 
able loss. Older sheep are rarely attacked, and in them the 
disease assumes a chronic form. Hemorrhagic septicemia of 
sheep is most common in low, damp, marshy regions. It is 
rare on high, dry land. Outbreaks occur most generally at 
the time the lambs are weaned. 

Etiology. — The Bacterium ovisepticum, a variety of the 
Bacterium bipolaris septicus. It is difficult to cultivate out- 
side of the body, as it is very apt to die in cultures. 

Natural Infection. — Through the digestive tract, the sheep 
taking in infected food or water found on the pastures or in 
contaminated sheepfolds. Young sheep at weaning time are 



HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA 301 

most predisposed, and in them the disease assumes usually a 
very acute form. In older sheep the disease is more chronic. 

The infective discharges of diseased animals obviously con- 
tribute toward the spread of the disorder. In sheep herds 
running in small pastures or kept crowded in folds the disease 
assumes a very virulent form. It is transmitted to healthy 
sheepfolds by infected animals. 

Predisposing causes are anything that will reduce the resis- 
tance of the sheep, such as cold, getting wet by rain, etc. The 
disease is more common in wet seasons and on low grounds. 

In all probability infection with strongyls may be a predis- 
posing cause. 

Necropsy. — In peracute cases the postmortem is largely 
negative, except for the symptoms noted under Hemorrhagic 
Septicemia. 

In the acute form the subcutaneous connective tissue of the 
dewlap, neck, and throat shows gelatinous infiltration. The 
mucous membranes of the head, air passages, abomasum, and 
bowel are inflamed (reddened and swollen). The lymph 
glands are enlarged, diffusely reddened (blood-shot). Pete- 
chia? and ecchymoses are noted in the serous membranes, 
kidneys, and lymph glands. In many cases, even in the acute 
form, the lungs are involved. In them are found dark, red- 
dish-brown areas of bronchopneumonia surrounded by infil- 
trated interlobular connective tissue. The spleen is usually 
normal. 

In the subacute form bronchopneumonia involving the 
anterior and lower parts of the lung is present. The pleura 
and also the pericardium is often covered with fibrinous 
pseudomembranes and the serous cavities partially filled with 
a clear yellow or turbid fluid. Bronchitis and enteritis may 
also be present and in many cases fibrinous rhinitis. 

In the chronic form larger areas of the lung and pleura are 
involved. Thickenings and adhesions are common. The in- 
volved area is hepatized, some areas which have undergone 
necrosis surrounded by connective-tissue capsules. The 
necrotic foci when cut through show a yellow centre of viscid 
pus surrounded by concentric layers resembling in structure 
an onion. However, in some cases none of the internal organs 



302 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

show marked pathological changes. There are in such only 
the symptoms of a severe pneumonia and cachexia. 

Symptoms. — In the acute form, which usually lasts two to 
five days, or even a shorter period, there are symptoms of a 
severe feverish disease. The lambs are very dull, stupid, 
refuse to eat, show increased thirst, dyspnea, colic symptoms, 
and twitchings of the muscles. The temperature is often 
105.8° F. 

In subacute cases the animal may live one to three weeks, 
during which time it shows symptoms of fever, poor appetite, 
and languor, with mucopurulent discharge from the eyes and 
nose In some instances there are symptoms of pleuropneu- 
monia; in others enteritis with a discharge of a yellowish- 
green, later darker colored, fetid feces. In some cases nodules 
and also ulcers are noted on the mucous membrane of the lips 
and cheeks. Caries of the teeth may occur. The lips, cheeks, 
and tongue are swollen and cyanotic. In rare instances 
ulcerous keratitis has been observed. The lambs are very 
weak and die under symptoms of cachexia. In rare instances 
after a long time improvement follows. Complete recovery 
is, however, rare. As a rule the animals are stunted by 
chronic pneumonia and resulting cachexia. 

The chronic form is seen usually only in adult sheep. 
Sometimes it develops from the acute form. The symptoms 
are those of a severe, chronic pneumonia. The sheep cough, 
show dyspnea, moderate mucopurulent nasal and eye dis- 
charge, and gradual emaciation. In some cases there develop 
swellings of the carpal and tarsal joints and purulent inflam- 
mation of the hoof matrix. In most cases, however, the 
symptoms are those of a general cachexia. 

In some districts in which this infection prevails, coinci- 
dentally animal parasitism is associated with the disease 
(strongyls, tapeworms, liver flukes). 

Diagnosis. — The acute cases might be confused with an- 
thrax. However, the normal spleen, absence of gelatinous 
blood extravasations, and hematuria usually suffice for dif- 
ferentiation. Subacute and chronic cases so much resemble 
the lung and stomach-worm plague of lambs that differentia- 
tion would be very difficult provided parasites were found, 



HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA 303 

Braxy affects yearling sheep in the fall and winter months. 
It is characterized by its rapid, fatal course and the hemor- 
rhagic areas in the abomasum and duodenum found on 
necropsy. Icterohematuria of sheep presents on postmortem 
besides icterus, hemorrhagic inflammation of the abomasum, 
duodenum and rectum, enlargement of the spleen, the pulp of 
which contains large numbers of the Piroplasmosis ovum. 

Treatment and Prevention. — Medicinal treatment is largely 
useless. A slaughter of all sheep chronically affected is recom- 
mended. The sheep should be removed from infected pastures 
and a thorough disinfection of the sheepfold should follow. 
As animal endoparasites probably facilitate the bacterial in- 
fection, the sheep should not only be kept rid of worms, but 
kept from worm-brood infested pastures. 

Protective Inoculation. — Good results were obtained in 
Argentine by the use of a polyvalent vaccine of which lambs 
were given each | c.c. injected subcutaneously. Polyvalent 
immunizing serum was also effective. 

In several herds of infected lambs the serum of the horse 
which had been hyperimmunized with cultures of the Bac- 
terium ovisepticum proved of practical value. The serum was 
given simultaneously with the vaccine. In these experiments, 
as the immunity lasted only six weeks, a second inoculation 
with vaccine is recommended at the end of one month. This 
simultaneous method proved efficacious in that it stopped the 
spread of the disease and in most cases healed lambs already 
infected. 

Takosis of Angora Goats. — Definition. — Takosis is a chronic 
contagious disease of Angora goats characterized by weak- 
ness, emaciation, diarrhea, and pneumonia, which leads to 
death in from one to eight weeks. 

Occurrence. — The disease is not uncommon in the United 
States, particularly in the Northern States (Oregon, Missouri, 
Massachusetts, Virginia and Maryland). As the disease is 
fatal, and 30 to 85 per cent, of the goats in a herd are attacked 
during an outbreak, it attains considerable economic impor- 
tance. 

Etiology.— The cause seems to be a micrococcus, the Micro- 
coccus caprinus, which is pathogenic for goats, chickens, rab- 



304 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

bits, guinea-pigs, and white mice, but not for sheep, dogs, or 
rats. 

Necropsy. — The necropsy shows evidence of general anemia. 
In the serous membranes petechia? are found. In the lungs 
centres of pneumonia are present and in the pericardium 
accumulations of transudate. There is chronic catarrh of the 
mucous membranes, and occasional areas of necrosis have 
been noted. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of takosis are very similar to 
those following a parasitic invasion. In general there are 
emaciation, weakness, with symptoms of diarrhea and cough. 
In the early stages, except for a slight weakness, no symptoms 
are observable. Later the affected goat becomes listless and 
languid, lags behind the flock, holds its head low, and the 
eyelids partially closed. There is usually some nasal discharge 
and occasional coughing. The pulse is slow and weak, the 
temperature at first elevated (104.1° F.) but later, a few hours 
before death, it becomes subnormal (99.7° F.). As the disease 
progresses the gait becomes staggering, the back arched, 
the patient moving in a wavering, unsteady fashion. The 
appetite is capricious. Rumination is rarely impaired. The 
mucous membranes are anemic, the respirations increased. 
Finally the patient becomes so weak that it falls to the ground 
and must be assisted to its feet. Gradually losing weight, it 
lingers from day to day, and finally under symptoms of fetid 
diarrhea, succumbs. Frequent, plaintive bleating is noted. 

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of takosis are usually so similar 
to those of parasitism that from the clinical aspects alone a 
diagnosis would hardly be possible. The necropsy would 
determine the presence or absence of parasites. However, in 
parasitism the pneumonic symptoms are not so well developed 
and the tendency for submaxillary edemas to form is greater. 

Course. — The course is usually chronic, the patient dying in 
from one to eight weeks. The mortality is 100 per cent. 
Pregnant does usually abort. 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment has proved unsatisfac- 
tory, as all patients naturally infected die. Some authorities 
recommend small doses of calomel (gr. ij twice daily for two 
days) followed by arsenic, iron, and quinin: 



DISEASES' OF NEWBORN ANIMALS 3U5 

1$ — Arsen. acid gr. xx 

Ferri reduct 5iv 

Quinin sulph 3iss 

M. f. Pulv. no. xx. 
S. — One powder morning and evening. 

Prophylaxis. — To prevent takosis it is recommended that 
when goats are shipped from one part of the country to 
another that it be done during the summer or late spring, 
and not in the fall or winter, thus avoiding as far as possible 
sudden climatic changes. It is also advisable at all times to 
provide the goats with a storm shelter to which they go 
voluntarily during a downpour of rain. That the herd should 
be given proper food and careful attention is obvious. 

Once the disease has made its presence in a flock the separ- 
ation of the sick and the healthy coupled with a thorough 
disinfection of the premises are indicated. 

SEPTICEMIC DISEASES OF NEWBORN ANIMALS. 

Dysentery of Sucklings (Dysenteria Neonatorum). — Defini- 
tion. — This is an acute, gastro-enteritis rarely occurring in 
animals over one week old. It appears enzootically and is 
characterized clinically by a profuse diarrhea, great exhaus- 
tion, and a rapid, fatal course. 

Occurrence. — The disease occurs in calves, lambs, foals, and 
pigs (rare in dogs and cats) and appears especially in breeding 
districts at the time of parturition (spring and fall), causing 
great losses on account of its rapid spread and fatal termina- 
tion. In some outbreaks every calf or lamb born on the prem- 
ises becomes infected and dies of the disease in the first few 
days of its extra-uterine life. 

Etiology. — The Bacillus coli communis or some of its varie- 
ties. Feeding experiments and rectal injections of colon 
bacilli obtained from victims of the disease reproduce it in 
calves of susceptible age. It is possible that other bacteria 
may be contributory causes. The Bacillus enteriditis of 
Gartner and the Bacillus pyocyaneus of Poels are accused. 

Natural Infection. — Once introduced into a barn the infec- 
tion remains there with remarkable tenacity, causing year 
20 



306 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

after year new outbreaks of the disease. It is possible for this 
dysentery to develop in a stable without being imported. 
This is probably due to colon bacilli, which are living as 
saprophytes on the premises, assuming a virulent form once 
introduced into the bodies of calves with lowered resistance 
(bad sanitation, improper feeding) . The infesting germs may 
enter the body: (a) via navel cord or (b) via digestive tract. 
Calves are often attacked before they have suckled their 
dams. An intra-uterine infection seems to be proved by the 
fact that an injection of a virulent culture of the colon bacillus 
into the jugular vein of a pregnant cow, was followed in eight 
days by the birth of a calf with the disease. Removing the 
pregnant dam to a non-infected place does not always protect 
her young from infection. Calves which have not yet sucked 
seem most predisposed; and resistance against infection in- 
creases as the calf becomes better nourished through its 
natural food. After eight days of extra-uterine life the danger 
of infection is passed. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms appear in from a few hours to 
three days after birth, rarely later. The principal indication 
of the disease is diarrhea. The liquid feces are at first expelled 
with considerable straining (tenesmus), a strong stream of 
yellow-colored, fetid discharge being shot from the rectum. 
Later the evacuations become whiter in color and thinner in 
consistency, often mixed with blood and food. The patient 
rapidly grows weak, languid, refuses to suck, the eyes become 
retracted and dull, the anus relaxes, causing fecal incon- 
tinence, the hair coat becomes erect, and finally under symp- 
toms of coma death occurs. The temperature is somewhat 
elevated (105° F.) in the early stages, but later may become 
subnormal. There is also dypsnea and rapid pulse. 

Diagnosis. — Usually easy. This infectious dysentery is dif- 
ferentiated from sporadic diarrhea of young animals in that it 
affects only those less than one week old, induces a fetid, 
exhaustive, and rapidly fatal diarrhea and assumes an 
enzootic form. In acute gastro-intestinal catarrh ("scours") 
due to dietetic irregularities older sucklings are attacked, the 
general symptoms are much less pronounced, and the feces 
are thicker, yellower, and less fetid. 



DISEASES OF NEWBORN ANIMALS 307 

Course. — The course is usually very rapid, leading to death 
in from twelve to forty-eight hours. The sooner after birth 
the symptoms appear the more fatal and rapid the course. 
Occasional cases may linger as long as a week. 

Prognosis. — Bad. Mortality 90 per cent. Recovery follows 
a protracted convalescence and results in an unthrifty calf 
(chronic pneumonic lesions) . 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment is usually worse than 
useless, as it rarely prevents death, and encourages the further 
spread of the disease. Ordinarily it pays to kill the infected 
suckling and render its carcass harmless by cremation or deep 
burial. When an outbreak occurs every effort should be made 
to eradicate the infected sources by a thorough disinfection of 
the barn, hind parts and genitals of the dam, before and after 
parturition, and the navel stump of the newborn animals, if it 
still be healthy. All fecal discharges should be removed and 
sterilized with a 2 per cent, formaldehyd solution. The stable 
partitions, mangers, 1 floors, should be thoroughly disinfected 
and, if possible, given a coat of whitewash. The after-birth, 
dead sucklings, and postpartum vaginal discharges should be 
completely destroyed. The vagina of the dam should be 
douched with a warm solution of 2 per cent, carbolic acid, the 
external genitals, buttocks, tail, and udder being also washed 
with the antiseptic-. The navel of the newborn animal should 
not be ligated, but before it has had an opportunity to become 
infected, covered with some astringent, antiseptic powder 
which will aid its desiccation. The meconium is- best removed 
by the colostral milk of the dam, but before sucking is per- 
mitted the udder and teats should be disinfected with a non- 
poisonous antiseptic (creolin). Hand-fed sucklings should be 
allowed the colostral milk for the first two days. To prevent 
outbreaks in contaminated premises it is recommended to 
remove the pregnant dams to uninfected places at least six 
weeks before parturition. As the infection seems to be re- 
tained in the genital passages for some time a shorter period 
does not suffice. Serum therapy has been tried in Europe. 
A polyvalent colon serum has been employed with some degree 

1 If the floor is earth it should be removed to the depth of at least one 
foot and then filled in with fresh clay. 



308 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

of success (Jensen) . Experiments to produce active immunity 
of the fetus in utero by inoculating subcutaneously pregnant 
cows with sterile extracts of colon bacilli, have been made 
with as yet conflicting results. 

Pyosepticemia of Sucklings (Pasteurellosis Neonatorum). 
Pyemic Arthritis. Joint III. Omphalophlebitis. Navel III. 
— Definition. — This is an acute contagio-infectious disease of 
animals less than one month old, due to navel infection, and 
characterized by joint lesions usually of a purulent character. 
It is accompanied by septicopyemia. Peracute cases take the 
form of a general septicemia. 

Occurrence. — The disease is wide-spread and occurs in prac- 
tically all breeding districts. Foals and calves are most com- 
monly affected. Like the dysentery of sucklings, with which 
it is closely related, it often appears as an enzootic, attacking 
large numbers of young animals, and, as it is generally fatal, 
seriously interferes with breeding operations. 

Etiology. — In calves the Bacterium bovisepticum and the 
colon bacillus, acting jointly, are accused. In colts various pus 
cocci (staphylococci and streptococci) have been found in the 
organs, blood and joints. It is very probable that several 
pathogenic microorganisms are related etiologically to the 
disease. 

Natural Infection. — Extra-uterine. — Via navel cord which 
has not yet become dried and shriveled and still contains the 
Whartonian gelatin. The danger of infection is probably 
greatly enhanced by ligation as is usually practised in animals. 
Naturally, filthy bedding or floors or ground covered with 
manure, urine or the discharges from the infected navel of a 
developed case of the disease increase the danger. It happens, 
therefore, that a sporadic case can spread the infection until 
every colt or calf born on the premises becomes a victim. 

Intra-uterine Infection. — As some animals are born with the 
disease (symptoms at birth; pathological lesions present too 
old to have developed since birth), an infection in utero from 
the pregnant dam, in whose blood pathogenic bacteria have 
appeared, is assumed. 

A further possibility would be the permanent infection of 
the uterus of the dam and the passage of the bacteria from it 



DISEASES OF NEWBORN ANIMALS 309 

to the placenta and fetus. This would explain those cases 
where a given mare bears year after year colts which are born 
with the disease. In cases of antepartum infection the navel 
is usually intact. 

Necropsy. — The postmortem lesions vary, depending on 
whether the case was peracute, acute, or chronic. 

(a) Per acute. There are no marked lesions except those 
of a general septic infection such as cloudy swelling of the 
parenchymatous organs, petechia? and ecchymoses in the 
serous and mucous membranes and acute swelling of the 
lymph glands. 

(b) In acute cases the navel is usually swollen and firm and 
the navel ring is open. Purulent or putrid exudate may be 
pressed out. Quite frequently an abscess forms in the ab- 
dominal wall. The umbilical vein and one or both umbilical 
arteries are distended at intervals or throughout their whole 
length. On palpation they feel firm or fluctuating. When 
opened a dirty red, often fetid exudate flows out. The inner 
surface of the bloodvessels may be covered with a fibrinous 
coagulum and is sometimes ulcerous. The infection may 
involve the peritoneum, leading to an adhesive peritonitis, 
causing adhesions among the abdominal organs. The portal 
vein and its branches show thrombi extending into the 
liver. 

Metastatic abscesses, especially of the lungs, liver and 
lymph glands, are not infrequent. Occasionally there may be 
present pleuritis and pericarditis. A fibrinous or suppurative 
panophthalmia is not rare. The affected joints, especially 
the tarsal and carpal, show suppurative arthritis. The peri- 
articular connective tissue is infiltrated with either a sero- 
fibrinous or seropurulent exudate; periarticular abscesses are 
not uncommon. A communication between the abscess and 
the diseased joint cavity is not unusual. The adjacent tendon 
sheaths may be also involved. 

(c) Chronic Cases. — The changes here are frequently in the 
lungs, such as bronchopneumonia, with fibrinous or sero- 
fibrinous pleuritis, and pericarditis. In the later stages case- 
ous foci are found in the lungs. The mediastinal and peri- 
bronchial lymph glands are often enlarged and caseated. The 



310 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

cadaver is emaciated and shows symptoms of general anemia 
and cachexia. 

Symptoms. — In pyosepticemia of sucklings the disease may 
appear clinically as a general septicemia, an affection of the 
joints or of the navel, and may be complicated with metastatic 
changes in internal organs (lungs, liver, kidneys, mesenteric 
glands, brain, etc.). The clinical picture will therefore vary. 
In calves the disease is often less acute than in colts and is less 
apt to involve the articulations. Both local and general 
symptoms are observed, the local often being noticed first. 
Three clinical forms of the disease are recognized : 

(a) Septicemic Form. — In the septicemic form there appear 
within a day or two after birth the following symptoms: 
refusal to suck; the patient is languid, remains recumbent, 
and if lifted to its feet is rarely able to stand, the head held 
low, the whole body limpid. The temperature is elevated 
(105° F.), the heart beat rapid and the respirations dyspneic. 
Death occurs in one or two days. In some cases, due to 
metastasis, symptoms in internal organs (lungs) develop. 

(b) Articular Form. — Most frequently in colts the first 
symptom noted is swelling of a joint or joints appearing within 
a few days after birth. The owner generally assumes that the 
swollen part has been tread on by the dam. The enlargement 
occurs in a limb joint (tarsal, carpal, femorotibial) and is 
inflammatory in character. The surrounding tissue is edema- 
tous. While the swelling sometimes promptly disappears, 
generally it persists, fluctuates and perforates or is lanced, dis- 
charging pus. Flexion of the affected joint causes pain and 
severe lameness. If many joints are attacked the young 
patient may be unable to stand. Marked suppuration does 
not always take place. The swelling may never open spon- 
taneously, but leads to a subacute or chronic arthritis with 
periarthritis, causing temporary or permanent enlargement of 
the joint. 

(c) Umbilical Form. — In some cases a local inflammation 
appears, the navel becoming hot, painful, and swollen, the 
stump moist and discharging pus or ichor. Between the 
umbilicus and the ensiform cartilage a firm strand, the size 
of a finger, may be felt in the abdominal wall running toward 



DISEASES OF NEWBORN ANIMALS 311 

the liver. The local symptoms may abate in a few days and 
the patient recover, or, on the other hand, a general septic 
infection ending in death results. Not infrequently metas- 
tatic abscesses form in parenchymatous organs producing 
symptoms varying with their distribution: 

(a) Lungs. — If the lungs are involved the young patient 
will cough, have nasal discharge and show dyspnea. On 
auscultation bronchial sounds, rales, and rhonchi may be 
heard and on percussion areas of dulness and tympany. The 
animal becomes anemic, emaciated, and extremely weak, re- 
maining most of the time lying on the sternum. In this form 
it may linger several weeks. 

(b) Stomach and Bowels. — The principal symptoms are 
loss of appetite, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. The feces 
are like those described under Dysentery of Newborn 
Animals. 

(c) Spinal Cord. — When the cord is invaded by metastatic 
abscesses, symptoms of paraplegia appear. These may come 
on suddenly or gradually and follow a period of apparent 
recovery. In some cases of spinal paralysis the preceding 
navel symptoms may have been entirely overlooked. 

(d) Brain. — The patient is usually very dull and uncon- 
scious of its surroundings. It may show forced movements, 
spasms and convulsions, opisthotonos, wry-neck, and par- 
alysis. 

Diagnosis. — Generally not difficult. When diarrhea is 
present a differentiation between joint ill and dysentery is 
impossible. If the navel is intact and joint swellings are 
absent, the diagnosis could be made only by a knowledge 
that the disease exists on the premises (other sucklings show- 
ing a more characteristic form of the disease) . 

Course. — Peracute cases die in twelve to forty-eight hours. 
In the acute, septicemic form the patients die in two or three 
days . In subacute cases, especially when the infection occurred 
late after birth, the navel infection remains local and eventu- 
ally heals, the patient under proper treatment recovering in 
two or three weeks. Chronic (lung) cases may last one or 
two months. If the abscesses in the lungs or liver become 
fully encapsuled, recovery may even take place. 



312 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Prognosis. — Bad. Depending on the age attacked and the 
form the disease assumes, the mortality will vary greatly. It 
is higher in colts than in calves, relatively more resistant to 
pus infections. Fully 60 to 90 per cent. die. Most sucklings 
which do recover remain stunted and do not "do well" for 
months after the attack (internal abscesses). In cases of 
joint affection in colts, if the suppuration is mild, recovery is 
common. When general symptoms appear the prognosis is 
bad. Bowel symptoms (diarrhea) generally promptly lead to 
death. 

Treatment. — An internal treatment is useless. When gen- 
eral septicemia is present the patient is beyond aid. The most 
rational treatment is surgical and applied to the primary seat 
of infection — the umbilicus. It should be thoroughly disin- 
fected (tincture of iodin), abscesses opened, necrotic portions 
carefully removed, and drainage provided. At the same time 
the patient should be kept in a light, well-ventilated, clean 
place. Painting the joint swellings with iodin tincture is 
recommended. Opening them to evacuate pus, while rarely 
of therapeutic value, is demanded. If there is no evidence of 
pus (heat, pain, firm fluctuation, temperature), the knife 
should be spared. 

Vaccination. The use of polyvalent or autogenic bacterins 
to arrest the progress of the disease is highly recommended by 
practitioners. In some cases the results seem very satis- 
factory. More experiments are desired. 

Prevention. — Where infection threatens, the dam about to 
be delivered should be placed in a clean, light, well- ventilated 
stall (preferably a maternity stall with cement floor and 
walls) and the bedding sprinkled with some non-poisonous 
antiseptic (creolin). The genitals may be flushed out with 
some good antiseptic (creolin 2 per cent.) and the tail and 
buttocks cleaned with it. As soon as the young animal is 
born the navel cord should be gently "milked" with dis- 
infected hands, to remove the Whartonian gelatin, and thor- 
oughly covered with a good antiseptic strew powder (dried 
alum, camphor, starch, equal parts) to aid in the desiccation 
of the cord. The application of the strew powder should be 
repeated often until the stump is completely shriveled and 



INFLUENZA OF THE HORSE 313 

dried. By frequent application, say once every half -hour for 
the first two hours after birth, the cord becomes thoroughly 
mummified in two to four hours (Williams). 

INFLUENZA OF THE HORSE. 

Under the collective term "influenza" intermittently have 
been grouped together at least two acute, infectious diseases 
one of which assumed the form of a general infection of the 
blood with inflammation of the mucous membranes, subcutis, 
tendon sheaths and tendons, and the other an infectious 
lobar pneumonia or pleuropneumonia. From a purely clinical 
standpoint some authorities (DieckerhorT, Bang) have pro- 
nounced influenza not to be a clinical entity. They assumed 
that under this head at least two separate and distinct dis- 
eases existed which differed in their pathogenesis, period of 
incubation and symptomatology. They were therefore given 
separate names. In Germany the catarrhal form was known 
as "Staupe" (influenza) and the pectoral as "Brustseuche" 
("chest plague"). DieckerhorT described a third disease, in- 
cluded under the term influenza, which he called "Skalma." 

The recent experiments of Gaffky and Luhrs which con- 
cerned the etiological factor primarily indicate that the term 
"influenza" has been made too inclusive. Their results seem 
to substantiate the work done by former authorities, espe- 
cially DieckerhorT and Bang. In the light of our present 
knowledge it seems advisable to classify under the term 
influenza two separate and distinct diseases: (a) Influenza. 
(b) Infectious fibrinous pneumonia of the horse. 

Influenza of the Horse (Catarrhal Fever, Pink Eye, Typhoid 
Fever). — Definition. — Influenza is an acute cont agio-infectious, 
usually enzootic, disease of the horse which is characterized by 
inflammation of the mucous membranes, subcutis, and ten- 
dons. It is due to a filterable virus. 

Occurrence. — The disease is very wide-spread, occurring in 
all countries. North America was visited by an epizootic of 
influenza in 1776 and again in a still severer form in 1870-72 
when it swept the continent from Canada to the Ohio, and 
westward to California. The disease is now permanent in this 



314 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

country where it is kept alive by the unsanitary stables of 
horse-dealers and in livery barns from whence it is from time 
to time spread. It may also attack asses, mules and zebras. 

Etiology. — The most recent investigations indicate that the 
cause of influenza is a filterable virus which appears in the 
blood and probably other body fluids. Gaffky produced in- 
fluenza in healthy horses by subcutaneous injections (5 c.c.) 
of defibrinated blood from naturally infected horses. The 
period of incubation is from five to six days. When the blood 
was injected intravenously the period of incubation was only 
four days. In artificially infected horses the characteristic 
symptoms were produced in forty hours. Similar experiments 
made with filtered blood serum gave positive results. The 
infectiousness of the blood was annihilated by the addition of 
the citrate of ammonia. In no case was he able to obtain 
growths on culture media from either the blood or blood 
serum used. 

Natural Infection. — The disease is probably spread by the 
nasal discharge and feces of infected horses. In all probability 
apparently recovered cases may be "germ carriers" introduc- 
ing the disease into stables and when brought in contact with 
susceptible individuals. Indirectly the infection may be 
carried by contaminated food, bedding, manure, stable uten- 
sils, harness or in the clothing of grooms, horsemen and 
veterinarians. Many sale and livery stables, due to their 
lack of light, ventilation and cleanliness, may harbor the 
infection for an indefinite period ("stable miasma") and all 
horses, especially "green" horses from the country, placed in 
them fall victims of the disease. The same is true of railway 
cars and stockyards which have not been properly disin- 
fected. Public watering troughs may also harbor infection 
and thus contribute to the spread of the disease. Although 
influenza is commonly enzootic it not unrarely assumes an 
epizootic form. While it appears at all seasons of the year, 
in the late winter and early spring horses seem most predis- 
posed. This is probably due to the condition of the mucous 
membranes, which are generally catarrhally inflamed from 
"colds" in these seasons. Influenza will attack horses of all 
ages, but it is not so common in colts less than a year old, nor 



INFLUENZA OF THE HORSE 315 

aged horses. Horses three to five years of age are most fre- 
quently affected. One attack produces lasting immunity. 
Horses which have had influenza may, however, take in- 
fectious pneumonia, and vice versa. The infection is most 
commonly taken in with the food and water. Infection via 
respiratory tract is highly probable but not proven. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is usually less than a 
week. A minimum period of one day and a maximum of ten 
days is recognized. The initial symptoms in many cases are 
moderately developed, but in the majority they are quite 
intense. Usually the first symptoms noticed by the owner or 
caretaker are loss of appetite, dulness, and marked languor. 
The patient stands with head down, eyes closed, ears drooped, 
appearing excessively fatigued. The gait is staggering, and 
crackling of joints is heard when the patient is moved. 

The temperature is elevated (103° to 105° F.). It usually 
drops by crisis on the second or third day. The pulse in the 
earlier stages is relatively low compared with the fever, but as 
soon as cloudy swelling of the heart begins it goes up to 60 to 
100, and becomes irregular and weak. 

Eye Lesions. — Conjunctivitis appears early, and later kera- 
titis and iritis (exudate in anterior chamber, contraction of 
pupil, etc.). The blood is charged with bile pigment, hence 
the conjunctiva assumes a yellowish, ochre, or a natural 
mahogany color. Sometimes a phlegmonous conjunctivitis 
with marked swelling and e version of the eyelids occurs. 
These symptoms generally rapidly subside, provided the 
cases take the normal benign course. 

Respiratory Tract. — Cough is usually present. It is gen- 
erally strong and moist. Nasal discharge, at first clear but 
later turbid and more profuse, is a constant symptom. The 
submaxillary glands are swollen. The patient shows moder- 
ate dyspnea; the respirations 20 to 25. Percussion normal. 
Auscultation exaggerated, vesicular breathing and moist 
rales. 

Digestive Tract. — Lost or impaired appetite; during the 
fever increased thirst is noted. Usually symptoms of catarrhal 
stomatitis and pharyngitis are present (coated tongue, warm, 
congested mucous membranes ; regurgitation of water through 



316 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

the nostrils). The gums are swollen ("lampas"), and along 
their border a marked yellowish discoloration is seen. The 
bowels during the febrile stage are constipated, the feces 
passed in the form of hard, small, mucous-covered pellets of 
sour odor. Later they become soft and a fetid, exhaustive 
diarrhea with tenesmus sets in. In some cases moderate colic 
symptoms occur (pawing, lying down, slight distention of 
abdomen) . 

Urinogenital Tract. — During the height of the fever very 
little urine is voided. Its specific gravity is high, color dark, 
reaction acid. It is rich in sediment. Under the microscope 
tube casts and epithelial cells (renal pelvis, bladder) are found 
in it. With the falling of the temperature a critical polyuria 
develops. In mares the vulva may swell and a mucopurulent 
discharge be present. Pregnant mares often abort. In 
stallions the scrotum is often enlarged and orchitis may be a 
symptom. 

Skin. — While there is generally an edema of the hind limbs 
present in influenza, in some outbreaks it is much more pro- 
nounced than in others. With increased heart weakness, 
edemas appear in pendent portions of the body (under chest, 
abdomen, udder or scrotum). Occasional cases of tendo- 
vaginitis, particularly of the flexor tendons, are noted, and 
once in a while laminitis occurs. The patients usually lose 
flesh rapidly, and become very weak and debilitated. 

A very dangerous complication is pneumonia or pleuro- 
pneumonia, which usually assumes the catarrhal form, and 
may be hemorrhagic in character. Such cases seriously dis- 
turb the functions of the heart, and kidneys and often lead to 
death. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is usually not difficult. The 
rapid spread of the disease from animal to animal, the icteric 
mucous membranes, conjunctivitis and skin edemas differen- 
tiate it from other diseases attended by high fever. When 
these symptoms are absent the highly infectious character of 
the disease, as evidenced by the rapid spread, is significant. 

While a differentiation between influenza and infectious 
pneumonia of the horse can usually be made if the course of 
the disease can be studied, at first visit it may be very diffi- 



INFLUENZA OF THE HORSE 317 

cult. The prodromal symptoms of the two diseases are very 
similar. The high initial fever, the swelling and icteric dis- 
coloration of the conjunctiva, the contagiousness and the 
inflammatory swellings in the subcutis and tendon sheaths 
are common to both. Usually, however, on the second or 
third day in infectious pneumonia, tangible symptoms of 
pneumonia develop; in influenza pneumonia occurs as a 
complication, and usually much later in the course of the 
disease. Furthermore, influenza is more apt to attack the 
intestinal tract early. A differentiation between influenza 
and infectious anemia would become important only in dis- 
tricts in which the latter disease exists. In infectious anemia 
no catarrhal symptoms develop, the mucous membranes show 
petechia?, the blood serum is opalescent and plainly tinged 
with red. Infectious anemia is not highly infectious. From 
strangles influenza is distinguished by the tendency for lymph 
glands to suppurate, which characterizes the former disease. 

Course. — The course is usually about one week or the disease 
may terminate favorably in less time, provided no complica- 
tions arise. When the disease progress is interrupted by 
pneumonia, encephalitis, enteritis, or degeneration of the 
heart muscle the course is protracted and the termination 
fatal. As a rule, however, influenza is a mild disease, and 
unless the patient is worked, kept in unsanitary surroundings, 
or given too much medicinal treatment, recovery in a few 
days is the rule. 

Prognosis. — The mortality is 1 to 4 per cent. During some 
outbreaks the disease appears more malignant than in others, 
and complications are commoner. The continuation of a 
rather high fever for not longer than five or six days is per se 
of no significance provided the pulse remains good, the patient 
does not become dyspneic, and no diarrhea attend. 

Treatment. — Most important in the treatment of a self- 
limiting disease like influenza is to provide the patient with 
light, ventilation, and cleanliness. In mild sunny weather, if 
at all feasible, place the patient out of doors during the day. 
The food should be nourishing and easily digested, and given 
in small rations (grass, alfalfa, a bran mash with plenty of 
salt, scalded oats, etc.). To induce the patient to eat, some 



318 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

brown sugar may be strewn over the feed. In case a meal is 
refused or not entirely eaten it should not remain indefinitely 
in the feed box, but be removed and the box cleaned. Skim 
milk may be given (three or four gallons daily) if the patient 
will drink it. Hanging blankets wet with cold formalin solu- 
tion in the stable helps lower the temperature in hot weather 
and assists disinfection. A thorough cleaning up and dis- 
infection of the infected quarters will do more to reduce the 
mortality than drugs. The unequal distribution of the surface 
temperature should be regulated by proper grooming. The 
legs should be covered with Derby or flannel bandages, which 
tend to prevent edema. Medicinal treatment should only 
be employed when absolutely necessary. Overdrugging in 
influenza always increases the mortality. The following 
conditions may require medicinal aid : 

Fever. — The fever should be let alone unless it reaches an 
unusual height or is continuing rather indefinitely and seri- 
ously affecting the heart action. It may be reduced by cold 
rectal infusions which not only lower temperature but stimu- 
late peristalsis and unload the bowels. The use of antipy- 
retics, such as acetanilid or phenacetin (3 ij every three hours) 
is dangerous, as both drugs are powerful heart depressants. 
They should be administered, if at all, with caution. Sodium 
salicylate (5iv) is less dangerous in this regard, but may 
irritate the stomach. 

Heart Weakness. — When the pulse becomes rapid and weak 
one dose of digitalis (Squibb's fluidextract 5ij - iv) has a 
remarkable toning effect. Strophanthus (3ij-iv), caffein 
(5ss-j), camphor oil (subcutaneously Sss-j) are also effec- 
tive. When the pulse is strong enough, alcohol (brandy 
(ghj) with ether (Sss) in a pint of cold water) is of service. 

Gastro-intestinal Tract. — Artificial Carlsbad salts (gij-iij) 
to which bitter agents (gentian, nux vomica) are added are 
useful. Dram doses of a solution of strychnin nitrate in water 
(strychnin gr. j, water 5 j) may be used. Bowel disinfectants 
are also employed, as creolin (gss-gj) or naphtholin (Bss). 
Diarrhea may be fought with astringents like tannin with 
opium. Starch clysters are helpful. The profuse diarrhea 
attending septicemia is impossible to check. Calomel (gr. 



INFLUENZA OF THE HORSE 319 

xv) with bicarbonate of soda (giss) mixed with powdered 
licorice root (§j), smeared over the teeth as an electuary, 
may be tried. 

Skin. — Leg swellings are best reduced by elastic bandages, 
and if the pulse will permit, moderate exercise. Burrow's 
solution to which a little gum camphor is added may be used 
as a leg wash under the bandage. 

Eyes. — The eyes should be treated as in conjunctivitis 
(boric acid solution 2 per cent.) and the pulmonary and 
pleural symptoms met as recommended under the Diseases 
of the Respiratory Tract. 

Convalescent patients should not be worked until strong 
enough and full appetite returned. The animal is generally 
fully recovered fourteen days after the temperature has 
become normal. 

Infectious Fibrinous Pneumonia of the Horse (Chest 
Plague. Pectoral Influenza. Pleurisy. Shipping Fever).— 
Definition. — An acute, febrile, contagio-infectious disease of 
the horse which in typical cases appears as a fibrinous pneu- 
monia or pleuropneumonia with which is associated inflam- 
mation of the subcutis and tendon sheaths. In mild cases it 
may assume the form of a general febrile disease of short 
duration. 

Occurrence. — Infectious fibrinous pneumonia is wide- 
spread, occurring in all countries. Statistically it is difficult 
to state, however, anything definite in regard to its prevalency, 
as it has been so often confused with influenza. The disease 
is most apt to appear in large stables in which many horses 
are kept, and especially during inclement weather. The dis- 
ease in passing through a stable does not usually affect the 
horses in the order in which they stand in the stalls, the in- 
fection tending to spread unevenly, skipping apparently 
susceptible horses. Infectious pneumonia does not become 
epizootic as readily as does influenza; it is more apt to 
remain confined to an infected stable, from which it may be 
spread, however, by a convalescent horse. While infectious 
pneumonia will not involve in a given country as many horses 
as influenza, on account of its higher mortality and a greater 
tendency to leave behind sequelae ("heaves," relapsed cases) 



320 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

which may permanently impair the efficiency of the horses 
attacked, it can assume even greater economic importance. 

Etiology. — The cause of infectious pneumonia of the horse 
has not yet been identified. According to Gaffky and Liihrs 
the bronchial slime of an infected patient contains the virus 
of the disease, at least in the early stages. In typical cases of 
infectious pneumonia in which the patients were destroyed on 
the third or fourth day, in the bronchi was found a quantity 
of yellow, transparent, viscid fluid which contained no bac- 
teria. In two experiments on twenty-four colts inoculated 
with this fluid, by painting it upon the mucosa of the nostrils 
and in the mouth, the colts became typically ill with infectious 
pneumonia in twenty-three to forty-two days. Undoubtedly 
a specific virus, which may be filterable, forms the true cause 
of the disease. In all probability, however, other bacteria, 
principally the Streptococcus pyogenes equi, and the Bacillus 
equi septicus, are secondary invaders, contributing to the 
underlying disease process and clinical phenomena. 

Natural Infection. — The way in which the disease spreads 
naturally is at present not known. The infection seems to be 
spread by more or less intimate contact between the sick 
horse and susceptible ones. The transmission through inter- 
mediate agents, such as food, water, stable utensils, etc., or 
through persons or insects, has not been demonstrated experi- 
mentally. However, practical experience in other diseases 
and with this disease would not exclude indirect transmission. 
Sporadic outbreaks in stables could be explained, however, as 
coming from apparently healthy "germ carriers" or "missed 
cases" of infectious pneumonia, i. e., where still exist in the 
lungs or occasionally in other organs unhealed foci of infection. 
As predisposing factors anything which reduces the resistance 
of the susceptible animal unquestionably has a bearing on the 
origin of the disease. Therefore refrigeration, overwork, bad 
sanitary conditions, become predisposing factors. The dis- 
ease is rare in very young or aged horses, and occurs usually 
in animals in the prime of life. 

One attack produces immunity for only a short period. 
Individual instances are recorded in which a given horse has 
suffered repeated mild attacks of the disease. An attack 



INFLUENZA OF THE HORSE 321 

of infectious pneumonia in no way influences the susceptibility 
to influenza infection. 

Necropsy. — On postmortem, where the disease has assumed 
a typical form, the lesions 'are those identified with fibrinous 
or even hemorrhagic pneumonia, with a marked tendency to 
gangrene. The extent and distribution of the inflammation 
varies. In some cases the pneumonia is of the lobar, in others 
the lobular type. The exudate is usually of a hemorrhagic 
character. Yellowish-gray areas of necrosis throughout the 
lung tissues are commonly noted, appearing as encapsuled 
pus centres or gangrenous foci. 

The pleuritis is serofibrinous; the thorax may contain 
several gallons of serous exudate. Adhesions between the 
lung and chest wall (adhesive pleuritis) is a common finding. 
Empyema of the thorax may be present. 

In the gastro-intestinal tract appear evidence of catarrh 
and, especially in the small intestine and cecum, inflamma- 
tory thickenings and ulcerations. 

Symptoms. — Infectious pneumonia of the horse is charac- 
terized by pneumonia and pleuritis. The pneumonia may 
assume either the lobar (benign) or lobular (malignant) type. 
(For details refer to the chapter on Pneumonias of the Horse.) 

Complications. — The most dangerous complications are: 
(a) Parenchymatous degeneration of the heart characterized 
by tumultuous heart beat and a rapid, arrhythmic, weak 
pulse. (6) Nephritis distinguished by scantiness of urine 
(anuria) and albuminuria, (c) Septicemia, usually following 
pulmonary gangrene, and recognized by continued high fever, 
chills, rapid, irregular and weak pulse, and exhaustive diar- 
rhea, (d) Paraplegia is rarely noted, but is usually a fatal 
complication, (e) Paralysis of peripheral nerves (facial, re- 
current) which may persist for several weeks. (/) Swellings 
of the limbs and pendent parts of the body, seen especially 
in the latter stages, are troublesome, (g) Tendinitis and 
tendovaginitis, (h) Founder, (i) Abortion, (j) Decubitus. 

Diagnosis. — Usually not difficult. Infectious pneumonia 

cannot be differentiated from sporadic lobar pneumonias if 

such occur in the horse. Every case of lobar pneumonia, 

therefore, should be isolated. Obviously this does not apply 

21 



322 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

to all lobular pneumonias, especially foreign body, medicinal, 
or hypostatic. 

Course. — When the pneumonia assumes the lobar type with 
mild pleuritis the course is about two weeks. If, however, 
the lobular form of pneumonia with pronounced bilateral 
pleuritis is present the course is prolonged for weeks, with 
remissions and exacerbations, either ending finally in death 
or leaving the patient permanently wind-broken (pleural 
adhesions; roaring). (See Lobular Pneumonia.) 

Prognosis. — The mortality is 1 to 4 per cent. The following 
factors are important in the prognosis; they are all grave 
symptoms: (a) Heart paralysis (rapid, empty pulse, venous 
pulse) ; (6) extent of pneumonia and pleuritis (bilateral with 
great effusion); (c) pneumonia centralis (sudden dyspnea 
with rise in the temperature during the course of the disease) ; 
(d) hemorrhages (epistaxis, bloody pleural exudate) ; (e) tem- 
perature continues high for over a week or is remittent in 
character; (/) diarrhea; (g) lung gangrene; (h) brain symp- 
toms. 

Treatment. — See Pneumonias of the Horse. 

PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. PETECHIAL FEVER. 

Definition. — Purpura hemorrhagica is an acute, non- 
contagious disease the result of a toxemia usually developing 
as a sequela to a specific infectious disease. It is characterized 
by marked edematous swellings of the head and limbs and 
petechia in the mucous membranes and internal organs. 

Occurrence. — Frequent in the horse. Cases are said to 
occur in the ox and the dog. The disease usually is seen to 
follow in the wake of an outbreak of influenza or strangles, 
individual cases during convalescence developing the symp- 
toms which typify the condition. It may also be a sequela to 
other debilitating diseases, especially if the patient has been 
kept in unsanitary surroundings and poorly nourished. It is 
rare in horses under two years old, but may attack aged 
individuals. 

Etiology. — Purpura in horses, as noted, is a secondary dis- 
ease, and is probably always associated with a hidden pus 



PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA— PETECHIAL FEVER 323 

pocket or an area of necrosis somewhere on or in the body of 
the animal attacked. It is therefore most apt to follow dis- 
eases or conditions attended by pus formation or necrosis 
(strangles, pharyngitis, empyema of facial sinuses, suppura- 
tive tooth diseases, internal abscesses, old castration wounds, 
necrosis of the skin). The disease is not transmissible either 
by inoculation or blood transfusion; there are no specific 
organisms found in the blood. Very probable, therefore, is 
the theory that toxins originating in a primary pus or necrotic 
focus, absorbed by the blood, in time intoxicate the animal, 
the resistance of which has been lowered by disease, unhy- 
gienic environment and poor food. While the blood itself 
seems to suffer little change in physical properties, the 
walls of the bloodvessels, especially the capillaries, become 
porous or rupture, allowing the blood to escape into the sur- 
rounding tissue. Thus smaller petechia? or more extensive 
ecchymoses are produced. From the larger veins the transu- 
dation of serum leads to the characteristic swellings. 

Symptoms. — Petechia? in the mucous membranes of the 
head. The hemorrhagic spots vary in size from a hemp seed 
to a bean. Sometimes on the nasal mucosa (septum and 
turbinates) the areas assume the form of stripes or striations, 
the membrane being swollen. The petechia? have a purple 
color. Sometimes ulceration is noted. There is nasal dis- 
charge of a yellowish or reddish serum or fluid blood. In 
the eyelid conjunctivitis is present with petechia? and slight 
sanguineous discharge. The mucous membranes of the 
mouth, though more rarely, may also be involved. 

Swellings of the skin usually appear with the petechia? or 
follow in a day or two. These are often at first isolated, flat- 
tened, urticaria-like tumefactions from the size of a pigeon's 
egg to that of a grapefruit, and larger by confluence. They 
are firm or edematous on palpation. More common, however, 
are diffuse swellings of the lower portion of the head, ventral 
part of the thorax and abdomen, udder, prepuce, or scrotum 
and limbs. In the regions of the nostrils and lips they com- 
monly begin and rapidly extend upward toward the eyes. 
The swellings are firm, and, especially at the flexion of joints, 
the overlying skin cracks open and a yellow, viscid, serous 



324 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

fluid exudes, which later dries, leaving a brown scab. The 
swellings terminate abruptly ("tied off") in the head a short 
distance below the eyes and in the limbs at the elbow and stifle. 

As long as the lumen of the nasal cavities and larynx is not 
encroached upon by swellings the respirations are not in- 
creased. From swelling, especially of the false nostrils and 
turbinates, dyspnea develops. If a hemorrhagic or inflamma- 
tory infiltration of the larynx appear, pronounced inspiratory 
and expiratory dyspnea with stertorous laryngeal sound (see 
Glottis Edema) follows. 

The leg swellings are painful, and mechanically interfere 
with locomotion and getting up and down. Usually the 
patients remain standing unless greatly fatigued or the attack 
mild. 

From swelling of the head mastication is difficult or im- 
possible. If the pharynx is involved, blood-tinged saliva 
drools from the mouth and regurgitation through the nostrils 
is noted. Food is sometimes retained between the teeth and 
cheeks, where it decomposes and emits a fetid odor. The 
appetite is good in the earlier stages and may be retained 
throughout mild attacks. If hemorrhagic or inflammatory 
infiltration of the gastro-intestinal tract occur, colic symptoms 
follow. The feces are sometimes blood-stained, and diarrhea 
may set in as a symptom of some complication (septicemia). 

The temperature is usually only slightly elevated and may 
remain practically normal throughout the course of the dis- 
ease, provided no complications occur. If complications exist, 
or the disease which preceded the attack of purpura was a 
feverish one and still to a degree persist, the temperature is 
elevated. Purpura and the disease from which it develops 
may occur concomitantly in the same patient. 

In the early stages the pulse remains about normal. As a 
rule it rarely goes beyond 50 to 60, If it exceed 80, compli- 
cations are present. 

Complications. — (a) Gangrene of the skin with sloughing 
is not an uncommon complication. The process of healing is 
slow (sometimes two or three months), and frequently un- 
sightly scars are left behind, greatly reducing the market 
value of the horse. 



PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA— PETECHIAL FEVER 325 

(b) Foreign body pneumonia: This is apt to follow severe 
pharyngitis, with dysphagia, or more rarely may be due to 
the aspiration of necrotic pieces of mucous membrane from 
the nasal cavities and throat. Pulmonary gangrene usually 
follows, leading to death in two or three weeks. 

(c) Septicemia usually attended by a sudden disappearance 
of the symptoms, profuse diarrhea, recumbent position, and 
decubitus. Pulse is elevated, temperature high. 

(d) Gastro-enteritis : Some cases begin with symptoms of 
colic which yield to proper treatment, the purpura following 
taking a benign course. If, however, large extravasations 
occur in the stomach, small or large intestines, severe gastro- 
enteritis is noted. Necrosis of the extra vasated areas in the 
bowel may take place and perforative peritonitis result. The 
patient presents violent colic symptoms and dies in twenty- 
four to thirty-six hours. 

Diagnosis. — Purpura hemorrhagica is characterized by the 
typical " tied-off" swellings and petechias in the visible mucous 
membranes. The diagnosis is easy if the case is at all typical. 
When ulcers occur in the nasal mucous membrane it might be 
mistaken for acute glanders. The crater-like margin and 
lardaceous base of the ulcers, the nodules, star-shaped cica- 
trices, enlargement of the submaxillary lymph glands, and 
the absence of petechias in glanders suffice to distinguish be- 
tween the diseases. Glanders and purpura may both appear 
in the same patient. With malignant edema the disease would 
rarely be confused (see this). Urticaria could only be mis- 
taken for purpura in the early stages of the disease. Anthrax 
is a rare disease in horses in the northern United States. In 
the South it usually assumes the cutaneous form, the swellings 
having very little resemblance to purpura. (See Anthrax.) 

Course. — Very varied. Mild cases sometimes recover in less 
than one week. Some are attacked with violent sepsis and die 
in two or three days after the first symptoms are observed. 
As a rule a case of this disease lasts two to six weeks, with 
many exacerbations and remissions. Recovery is sometimes 
rapid and unexpected. Some patients give the attending 
veterinarian great encouragement until some unexpected 
complication (septicemia, pneumonia) occurs which leads to 



326 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

death. Defects in the skin due to gangrene may take months 
to heal. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is generally doubtful. When 
the swellings on the head are extensive life is always threat- 
ened. A high, pulse (80), diarrhea, no appetite, constant 
recumbency, with attending decubitus and severe colic, are 
bad symptoms. The disappearance of the swellings is not a 
good sign unless the other symptoms also improve. Blood 
extravasations may form at any time in any organ (bowels, 
brain, and spinal cord), precipitating sudden death. The 
mortality varies from 30 to 50 per cent, and is largely de- 
pendent on the hygienic surroundings and care of the patient. 

Treatment. — As yet no successful specific treatment has 
been devised to combat the disease. The principal factor in 
bringing cases to a favorable termination is good hygiene. 
The patient should be placed in a light, clean, well-ventilated, 
bedded box stall and the head halter removed (prevents ne- 
crosis of skin of face). In proper weather it may be let run 
out of doors during the day. A light blanket may be used for 
covering. Allow plenty of clean water. The food should 
consist of oats, grass, and bran with plenty of salt. If there 
is difficulty in swallowing, gruels or milk may be used or tube- 
feeding employed. The treatment is surgical, sero therapeutic 
and medicinal. The surgical treatment consists in a thorough 
disinfection of the tumefactions, wounds, ulcers, and abscesses 
(creolin, lysol 3 per cent.). The application of Burrows' 
solution with camphor (camphor giss, lead acetat gvj, alum 
§iij, a tablespoonful to a wine bottleful of water) is good to 
ward off gangrene. Spirits of turpentine applied two or 
three times is said to have like effect. Scarification of the 
swellings as usually practised does no good and opens an 
avenue for further infection. 

When suffocation threatens, tracheotomy should be per- 
formed. While it no doubt prolongs life, in most cases where 
called for death follows. 

Good results are reported from the use of antistreptococcic 
serum in doses from 25 to 50 c.c. It may be given subcu- 
taneously and intratracheally. Naturally, its effect will de- 
pend upon the presence of a streptococcus infection which is 



HOG CHOLERA—SWINE FEVER 327 

by no means proved in purpura. Further, the serum is ex- 
pensive. Perhaps some of the good results reported are due 
less to the potency of the serum than to the fact that when 
used the resistance of the patient is not being reduced by 
overdrugging, a common practice before the introduction of 
modern serum therapy. 

The medicinal treatment is very varied and purely em- 
pirical. The following suggests some of the possibilities in 
this regard: 

1 . Drugs to increase coagulability of the blood : 

(a) Calcium chlorid with gelatin (gss thrice daily) 

via mouth or rectum. 

(b) Turpentine (5j thrice daily) in pint of milk. 

(c) Adrenalin (1 pro mille, dose 3iv). 

2. Intestinal disinfectants: 

(a) Calomel (gr. xx thrice daily) . 
(6) Ichthyol in form of sodium sulpho-ichthyolate 
(5hss thrice daily). 

3. Other treatments: 

(a) Intratracheal injections of Lugol's solution (§j 

intratracheal) . 

(b) Collargol intravenous (§j of a 1.5 per cent, solu- 

tion in water thrice daily). 
Tonic powders assist during convalescence, as artificial 
Carlsbad salts to which some powdered nux vomica is added. 



HOG CHOLERA. SWINE FEVER. 

Definition. — Hog cholera is a contagio-infectious disease due 
to a filterable virus. It assumes a variety of forms, but 
primarily is a septicemia with secondary pneumonia, pleuritis, 
and diphtheritic gastro-enteritis. Clinically, acute and chronic 
types are distinguished. 

Occurrence. — The disease is wide-spread, occurring in all 
countries. It is especially prevalent in the great corn-belt of 
the United States in which hog-raising is extensively de- 
veloped. The first recorded outbreak of hog cholera occurred 
in 1833 in Ohio, into which State it was probably introduced 



328 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

with imported hogs or bacon from Europe. Following closely 
in the wake of the development of transportation facilities, espe- 
cially railways, it spread from the Middle West to all parts of 
the country, especially toward the West, where the breeding 
of swine had become a profitable industry. The losses from 
cholera are enormous, reaching as high as $200,000,000 
(45,000,000 hogs infected) in 1888 and averaging close to 
$50,000,000 annually. The farmers of the corn-belt naturally 
suffer the brunt of damage wrought by the disease. Like 
most infectious diseases assuming an epizootic form the out- 
breaks come in waves. While some years swine are compara- 
tively free from the infection, or it assumes a mild form, in 
others it is wide-spread and especially malignant. As far as 
is known, hogs are the only animals which take the disease. 

Etiology. — The cause is an ultramicroscopic organism found 
in the blood, urine, and sometimes in the feces of cholera-sick 
hogs. The parts played by the Bacillus suipestifer and the 
Bacterium suisepticum are probably incidental, the former in- 
ducing principally the chronic gastro-intestinal and the latter 
the lung and pleural lesions. 

Natural Infection. — As the organism of cholera is found in 
the urine and feces, the pens, yards, etc., in which sick hogs 
have been kept, become contaminated with it. Healthy but 
susceptible swine become infected largely via digestive tract 
through food and water polluted with the secretions and 
excretions of the diseased. Hog cholera is introduced into a 
non-infected farm as follows: 

1. By infected hogs: These may stray from neighboring 
infected herds, be borrowed (breeding boars), brought in by 
purchase, or show-swine returned from fairs, expositions, etc., 
may bring the infection home. Hogs introduced during the 
incubative stage of the disease. Such swine may seem healthy 
at the time of purchase, but a few days later the symptoms 
appear. Hogs suffering from cholera in a chronic form 
("germ carriers"), especially old breeding boars and sows, 
showing no typical symptoms. 

2. The infection may also be brought into the premises by 
such intermediary agents as stray dogs, crows, fowls. Per- 
sons can also carry it on their boots and clothing. Once the 



HOG CHOLERA— SWINE FEVER 329 

disease breaks out it is spread, as noted, by the urine, feces, 
and other discharges of the sick, and by careless disposition 
of the dead (throwing carcasses into water-ways or leaving 
them on the fields; too shallow burial, incomplete cremation, 
etc.). Hauling the carcasses in wagons through the premises 
and along the roadways is a further factor in the spread of the 
disease. It is a common practice when hog cholera is dis- 
covered to exist on a farm for the owner to attempt getting 
rid of the disease by selling those hogs which are in a market- 
able condition. Too often a close discrimination between 
the infected and uninfected is not made. In transit or soon 
after arrival at their destination the disease may break out, 
infecting the railway cars, shutes, pens, etc. Hog cholera, 
therefore, is spread over great areas, and especially along 
lines of traffic. 

A transmission of the disease along the course of a flowing 
stream is probable, the current carrying the infection. 

Necropsy. — (a) Septicemic Form.— Lesions, as in hemor- 
rhagic septicemia. Petechia? and ecchymoses of the skin, 
serous membranes and of the mucous membranes of the 
gastro-intestinal tract, especially of the bowels. In the latter, 
accumulations of clotted blood may be found; the lymph 
glands are swollen and blood-shot; the parenchymatous 
organs congested, the spleen little if at all swollen. The 
petechia? over the kidneys give them a spotted appearance, 
known as " turkey-egg" kidney. On the serous membranes 
fibrinous exudates appear; catarrh of the stomach and small 
intestine is also noted. 

(b) The Intestinal Form. — The most characteristic lesions 
are noted in the large bowels, especially in the cecum. There 
appear in the mucosa and submucosa, flat, round, hard, 
elevated, yellowish, greenish-yellow or gray areas of necrosis. 
The areas vary in size from a pin-head to a twenty-five-cent 
piece. They are commonly known as " button ulcers." 

(c) Pectoral Form. — The lungs present the signs of pneu- 
monia (croupous, catarrhal or mixed) with serofibrinous 
pleuritis and pericarditis. In subacute or chronic cases 
multiple necrotic foci are present in the lung with caseation 
which may involve the lymph glands. 



330 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

The following necropsy lesions speak for hog cholera in 
outbreaks occurring in the United States : 

(a) Petechias and ecchymoses of skin. 

(b) Petechia? and ecchymoses of serous membranes, espe- 
cially of the pleura, epicardium and peritoneum over the 
kidneys (" turkey-egg kidney"). 

(c) Swollen lymph glands. 

(d) Button ulcers in the bowel (especially cecum and 
colon) . 

(e) Absence of pronounced splenic enlargement. (In 
subacute and chronic cases the spleen may be smaller than 
normal.) 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation varies from four to 
eighteen days/usually it is eight to ten days. The symptoms 
of hog cholera are not particularly characteristic. In the 
beginning of an outbreak the first warning given is the finding 
of a dead hog in the herd. Later another may be found. 
These losses may continue for a week or so when a number of 
swine show signs of disease. The symptoms will vary with 
the outbreak and the individual, i. e., some cases showing the 
pulmonary, others the intestinal type of the disease, etc., as 
follows : 

(a) Septicemic Form. — Barring peracute cases which die 
suddenly without having shown marked symptoms, the hog 
with acute cholera loses appetite, seems sluggish, weak, and 
is apt to crawl off in a corner or buries itself in the straw-pile. 
They usually do not come to feed when called, and if driven 
out of their seclusion are disinclined to move, hold the back 
arched, the curl is gone from the tail, and the ears droop. 
On the surface of the abdomen, the inside of the thighs, and 
around the ears and neck smaller petechia? or larger ecchy- 
moses are noted. A quite characteristic symptom is con- 
junctivitis, the exudate causing the lids to adhere. Vomiting 
is not uncommon. At first the bowels are constipated, but 
later diarrhea sets in, the feces being often blood-stained. 
The temperature is high. 

(b) Bowel Form. — This type of cholera involves not only 
the intestines but the whole digestive tract. The symptoms 
either follow those of the septicemic form or may come on 



HOG CHOLERA—SWINE FEVER 331 

more gradually. They consist in a diphtheritic stomatitis 
and pharyngitis, leading to dysphagia, and if the larynx 
becomes involved, pronounced dyspnea. Sometimes in cases 
with prolonged course on palpation tumefactions due to 
enlarged lymph glands and adhering bowel loops (adhesive 
peritonitis) may be felt through the abdominal wall. The 
hogs eat little or nothing and show diarrhea alternating with 
constipation. The patients move sluggishly, arch the back 
and lie down most of the time. Under symptoms of anemia, 
cachexia and general debility death follows in two or three 
weeks. A few cases recover, but usually remain stunted. 

(c) Pectoral Form. — In this form the symptoms of pneu- 
monia and pleuritis predominate. The hogs show high fever 
(108° F.), and cough frequently. There is often pronounced 
expiratory dyspnea and nasal discharge. Conjunctivitis is 
present. In the skin of the ears, neck, sides and lower por- 
tions of the body, tail, etc., appear petechia? and ecchymoses. 
The bowels are constipated in the beginning but later diarrhea 
sets in. Death usually results in one or two weeks, although 
in. a few cases the disease becomes chronic, leading to emacia- 
tion, capricious appetite, cough, dyspnea and fetid diarrhea. 
Death may follow in one or two months from exhaustion. 
Occasionally an encapsulement of necrotic lung foci takes 
place and the patient recovers. 

(d) Mixed Form. — While in the beginning of outbreaks 
of hog cholera the disease may assume one of the above- 
described forms, usually later both the lung and bowel types 
occur concomitantly in the individual. The symptoms are 
therefore quite complex, but usually one or the other form 
predominates. In many outbreaks marked skin lesions 
appear. Besides the intravascular redness noted, vesicles, 
pustules, ulcers, and m'arked necrosis, especially of the ears 
and tail (which may drop off), occur. Not infrequently 
urticaria and loss of the bristles are observed. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of cholera intra vitam is difficult, 
especially in the beginning of an outbreak. Usually after 
carefully weighing the available symptoms an examination 
postmortem (see this) must be made. In case of doubt a 
diagnosis can only be made by inoculating healthy young 



332 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

swine with the filtered blood of the suspect. Hog cholera may 
be confused with: 

(a) Swill Cholera. — In districts free from hog cholera a 
disease appears very like cholera. It is due to feeding swill 
containing dishwater in which is a quantity of powdered soap. 
Even the postmortem lesions resemble those of cholera. 
Careful inquiry into the mode of feeding usually suffices to 
explain the origin of the disease which promptly disappears 
when the food is changed. Hog cholera, however, commonly 
breaks out among swine fed kitchen offal from large institu- 
tions (penitentiaries, asylums). The food in these cases is 
not the cause. Large numbers of hogs are bought up indis- 
criminately to consume this waste, and with them a few 
which either have cholera in a chronic form or are cholera 
convalescents ("germ carriers"). 

(b) Tuberculosis.- — This is a common disease of swine which 
follow tubercular cattle, are fed skim milk containing tubercle 
bacilli, or the tubercular offal from slaughter houses. It would 
be confused only with chronic cholera. The history and ne- 
cropsy nearly always suffice to differentiate between the two 
diseases. In cases of doubt the bacteriological examination 
(staining for tubercle bacilli) may be employed. 

(c) Lung-worms (Strongylus Paradoxus). — These thread- 
worms are sometimes found in the bronchi of young pigs. 
They induce chronic cough and general unthriftiness. Occa- 
sionally death is induced through pulmonary edema. A 
necropsy reveals absence of cholera lesions and the presence of 
the strongylus in the foamy mucus of the small bronchi. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis varies with the outbreak. In 
some years the disease assumes a mild form leading to a 
mortality of not over 16 to 20 per cent. ; in others it may reach 
80 to 100 per cent. The septicemic form is nearly always 
fatal. The pectoral type leads to the death of all swine 
showing marked pulmonary symptoms (dyspnea, cyanosis, 
etc.). While recoveries in the intestinal form are not un- 
common, convalescence is often prolonged which .greatly 
affects the value of the hog. The same is true of chronic 
cases which seldom regain their former thrifty condition. 
An exception is formed in old breeding boars and sows. 



CATTLE PLAGUE— RINDERPEST 333 

Treatment. — A medicinal treatment is useless in hog- 
cholera. Once the disease has broken out it is usually recom- 
mendable to kill all swine showing intensive symptoms. The 
carcasses should be rendered harmless by cremation or deep 
burial. A thorough disinfection should follow, viz., all litter, 
droppings, etc., should be burned. Feed troughs, sheds, hog 
houses, etc., disinfected (cresol 3 per cent.). Lime should be 
scattered abundantly. Hogs which show mild symptoms or 
are carrying temperature should be inoculated with Dorset 
serum (obtainable from some State experiment stations, 
agricultural colleges, livestock sanitary boards, but not from 
the Bureau of Animal Industry). There are two ways of 
applying this serum: one known as the " serum alone" 
method, used in infected hogs, and the "simultaneous 
method," serum and virulent blood being injected simulta- 
neously into the medial aspects of the thighs of swine which 
show no symptoms of the disease and carry no fever. 



CATTLE PLAGUE. RINDERPEST. 

Definition. — Cattle plague is a very fatal contagious disease 
of cattle and buffalo of Oriental countries, which is character- 
ized by a severe croupous and diphtheritic inflammation of 
the mucous membranes, especially of the digestive tract. It 
sometimes involves the outer skin. 

Occurrence.— Cattle plague never existed in the United 
States. While formerly it was generally distributed through- 
out France, Germany, England, at the present time, except 
for the Balkan peninsula, Europe is free from it. The dis- 
ease is common in Africa and Asia, however, where it is today 
notoriously prevalent in Russia and the Philippine Islands. 
The disease is rare in sheep and camels which offer consider- 
able resistance to inoculation. Solipeds and carnivora are 
naturally immune. 

Etiology. — Cattle plague is due to an ultramicroscopic virus 
found in the blood, tissue fluids, exudates and in the secretions 
and excretions (bile, urine, feces, saliva, tears, sweat) of the 
body of an infected animal. The virus is not modified by 



334 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

repeated passing through cattle, although passage through 
sheep and goats is said to weaken it. 

Natural Infection. — Takes place by direct contact with 
infected animals or indirectly through hides, meat or dis- 
eased secretions and excretions, attendants, clothing, food, 
water, and stable utensils. The disease is readily spread 
along avenues of transportation by animals which have it in 
a mild form. The mode of infection is usually through the 
digestive tract. Transmission through the air does not seem 
probable, as inclosing an infected patient by a fence, ditch or 
even a tight stall partition suffices to prevent the further 
spread of the disease. One attack generally lends immunity 
for an indefinite period. 

Necropsy. — The postmortem changes vary somewhat with 
the severity and duration of the attack. Most conspicuous 
are the lesions in the mucous membranes which are swollen, 
reddened, show petechia, croupous, and diphtheritic areas. 
The cadaver is usually much emaciated and commonly an 
accumulation of a mucopurulent, yellow or discolored dis- 
charge is found at the natural openings. The mucous mem- 
brane of the mouth and pharynx shows petechia?, croupous 
deposits and ulcers, most pronounced in the inner surface of 
the lips, under the tongue, along the gums and cheeks. While 
the rumen, reticulum, and omasum present no characteristic 
changes, the mucosa of the abomasum is swollen, highly 
reddened, and covered with a viscid, dark-colored exudate. 
In some cases erosions appear. In the duodenum and ileum, 
Peyer's plaques and the solitary follicles are swollen, dark red 
in color, and infiltrated with purulent exudate. The changes 
noted in the large intestine are similar though usually less 
marked. The intestinal contents are soft and of a reddish- 
brown color. The spleen is rarely enlarged; it is usually 
anemic and smaller than normal. The liver is very light 
colored, anemic, and very friable. The gall-bladder is greatly 
distended with a light green, watery or dark-colored bile. 
The respiratory tract shows catarrhal rhinitis with edema of 
the submucosa; ulcerous erosions and croupous pseudomem- 
branes are common. The lungs are edematous, sometimes 
contain catarrhal pneumonic foci, and frequently interstitial 



CATTLE PLAGUE— RINDERPEST 335 

emphysema. The blood is dark and coagulates feebly. In 
some outbreaks a peculiar nodular and pustular eruption is 
found on the skin. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is three to nine days. 
The first symptom is that of fever, the temperature ranging 
from 104.9° to 107° F., falling somewhat in the next few days 
and becoming subnormal shortly before death. The affected 
cattle are Very languid, the whole musculature relaxed, the 
head held down, ears pendent, back arched, and a tendency 
to knuckle in the hind fetlocks is noticeable. The hair coat is 
roughened and involuntary twitching of the muscles of the 
head, shoulders, and flanks is frequent. In some patients 
there is a pronounced chill lasting several minutes. A com- 
mon early symptom is a frequent, painful cough which disap- 
pears as the severe gastro-enteritis develops. The patients 
are usually dyspneic. From the nose flows a mucopurulent 
(rarely bloody) discharge mixed with saliva, which excoriates 
the skin of the nostrils. 

The conjunctiva is either anemic or, on the contrary, it may 
be congested, the lids closed and swollen, tears flowing down 
the cheeks. Later there develops a purulent discharge which 
dries to form crusts about the eyelids. Keratitis may be 
present. In the mouth the gums are swollen and dark blue 
or dirty red in color. On the inner surface of the lips irregu- 
lar, shallow erosions are noted. Commonly the mucous mem- 
brane of the mandible and of the dental pad becomes covered 
with yellow granules as if sprinkled with corn meal. These 
areas later become confluent and slough, leaving behind 
readily bleeding ulcers. In swine outbreaks the mouth 
lesions are little developed. 

While in the initial stage the bowels are constipated, after 
the second day a profuse diarrhea sets in, the liquid feces 
are mixed with blood and fibrinous clots. The patients lose 
flesh rapidly. In some outbreaks there appear in the skin of 
the udder or scrotum, inner surface of the thighs, around the 
vulva and nose a nodular and pustular exanthema. In milch 
cows lactation stops, the udder becoming relaxed and smaller. 
The pulse varies from 50 to 100. From the vulva in some 
cases there is a dirty mucopurulent discharge from the 
inflamed mucosa. 



336 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Diagnosis.— The recognition of the first cases of cattle 
plague is difficult. The disease is characterized by its sudden 
appearance, the rapid development of the symptoms and the 
peculiar lesions found on the visible mucous membranes. Of 
great importance is a clear history of the origin of the out- 
break and the opportunity presented for the disease to be 
introduced on the premises. Cattle plague may be confused 
with the following : 

Malignant Head Catarrh. — Here while the mucous mem- 
branes of the head (eyes, nose) are severely involved, the 
digestive and genital tracts are mildly involved. Keratitis is 
more pronounced in this disease. Further, malignant head 
catarrh occurs sporadically and is not contagious. 

Foot-and-mouth Disease. — Would only be confused with 
cattle plague when the mouth erosions following the rupture 
of the vesicle were deep and covered with a pseudomembrane 
and gastro-enteritis was present. Foot-and-mouth disease, 
however, is characterized by vesicle formation, affects the 
feet and usually does not involve the eyes and nose. Its 
spread is further much more rapid than the cattle plague. 

Course. — The course is usually five to seven days, ending in 
death. Toward the end of an outbreak a few cases may 
recover. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is bad, 80 to 90 per cent, of the 
cases prove fatal. In the gray cattle of the Russian steppes 
the mortality is not over 50 per cent. 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment is of no value. Good 
results are recorded from the use of anti-Rinderpest serum 
coupled with a strict sanitation. 

Prophylaxis. — In civilized countries cattle plague has been 
stamped out by the compulsory slaughter of all animals 
affected and the enforcement of strict quarantine measures 
against infected districts. As the disease is not transmitted 
any distance through the air, its eradication is not difficult 
when cooperation on the part of the cattle owners can be 
obtained. The period of quarantine should extend ten days 
after the last patient has died or been killed. Carcasses 
should be disposed of as in anthrax. 

Protective Inoculation. — As one attack of cattle plague 
confers lasting immunity, efforts have been made to protect 



AFRICAN HORSE-SICKNESS— PESTIS EQUORUM 337 

against it by inoculating healthy cattle with various secre- 
tions (bile, nasal discharge, tears), blood serum and blood 
from affected animals. The inoculated animals, however, 
can spread the disease which has led to considerable losses 
where the method of vaccination has been practised. In 
badly infected districts, like South Africa, however, fair 
results have been obtained. (For details see larger works.) 

AFRICAN HORSE-SICKNESS. PESTIS EQUORUM. 

Definition. — African horse-sickness is an infectious disease 
of solipeds due to an ultramicroscopic virus. It is charac- 
terized by extensive edematous swellings under the skin and 
hemorrhages in the internal organs. 

Occurrence. — The disease is indigenous to South Africa 
where it occurs epizootically and leads to enormous losses 
among horses and mules. It therefore attains economic 
importance. 

Etiology. — The cause is a filterable virus. The blood of a 
horse affected with the disease will readily transmit it to 
susceptible animals no matter what way the inoculation is 
attempted. The manure is thought not to be infectious. It 
does not seem possible to infect animals other than horses, 
asses and mules, although i^ngora goats have been success- 
fully inoculated. 

Natural Infection. — The disease appears during the warm, 
rainy months of January, February, and March. It disap- 
pears after the first frost. Horses on pasture during these 
months are most often affected. The night season is more 
dangerous than the daytime in this regard. Probably the 
infection is carried by insects (mosquitoes, anopheles, stego- 
myia). Keeping a fire smudge near horses on pasture at 
night or protection with mosquito netting is said to prevent 
the infection. 

Necropsy. — Gelatinous infiltration of the subcutaneous and 
intramuscular connective tissue about the eyes and throat is 
commonly noted. Evidence of gastro-intestinal catarrh or in 
some cases hemorrhage and ulceration of the intestine is a 
common finding. The serous membranes show petechia? and 
22 



338 ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

not infrequently fibrinous exudation. The lungs are edema- 
tous, the spleen is normal and the liver and kidneys congested 
or inflamed. The superficial lymph glands are enlarged. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is about one week. 
Four forms of the disease are described from a clinical stand- 
point: The peracute, acute, subacute, and chronic. The most 
important are the acute and subacute forms. 

(a) Acute Form. — This form, known in Africa as Dunko- 
pziekte, begins with a high fever (104° to 107.6° F.), dyspnea, 
pulmonary edema, and heart paralysis. Death usually occurs 
in one or two weeks. 

(b) Subacute Form. — The subacute form, known as Dikko- 
pziekte, takes a longer and milder course. Characteristic of 
this form is a marked swelling of the head, principally about 
the eyes; swelling and prolapses of the tongue which is 
markedly cyanotic. From this symptom the name Blaw 
tong (blue tongue) is given the disease. The patient shows 
marked muscular weakness. In this form the majority of 
the cases recover. 

The peracute or apoplectic form produces sudden death; 
the chronic form assumes an atypical course lasting for weeks 
and resembling infectious anemia. 

Treatment. — A medicinal treatment has to date not proven 
satisfactory. Internally large doses of creolin have been 
recommended. 

Prevention. — Prevention consists in keeping the horses off 
infected or suspected pastures during the night time or driv- 
ing them to higher altitudes during the dangerous months 
of the year. Fairly good results have been obtained by pre- 
ventive inoculation to produce immunity. As in hog cholera 
a combined virus and serum vaccination is practised. 

Heartwater. — Definition. — Heartwater is a disease which is 
not identical with horse-sickness. It is a cont agio-infectious 
hydropericardium of cattle, sheep and goats of the Transvaal. 
The disease is carried by ticks ( Amblyomma hebrseum) , 



CHAPTER II. 
ACUTE EXANTHEMATOUS INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 

VARIOLA. POX. 

Definition. — Variola is an acute contagious disease char- 
acterized by a typical cutaneous eruption which passes 
through the stages of papule, vesicle, pustule, and crust. In 
all animals except sheep this eruption is usually local. 

Occurrence. — While cow-pox is a very common disease in 
the United States, horse-pox is rare and sheep-pox has never 
been reported. In Asia, Africa and in parts of Europe 
sheep-pox becomes epizootic, causing great losses. 

Etiological Relationship. — The etiological relationship of the 
pox of the different animals and of man to one another is not 
yet clear. There is undoubtedly a close relationship between 
cow-pox (variola vaccina) and smallpox of man (variola 
humana), although if man be inoculated with cow-pox, the 
eruption resulting usually remains local. Further, cattle are 
not readily inoculated with smallpox. However, as is well 
known, if man be inoculated (vaccinated) with cow-pox, he is 
protected against smallpox. Sheep-pox is transmitted with 
difficulty to either man or cattle, natural infection does not 
occur and no protection against cow-pox is afforded cattle 
inoculated with sheep-pox virus. Sheep-pox therefore is 
probably a specific disease of sheep which does not spread to 
other animals including goats. Goat-pox affects neither man 
nor sheep and seems to be a specific caprine disease. Horse- 
pox is a local disease of the skin in the region of the fetlocks. 
It is probably closely related to, if not identical, with cow-pox, 
being transmitted by recently vaccinated horseshoers to 
horses while being shod. In the light of our present knowl- 
edge smallpox (variola humana), sheep-pox (variola ovina) 
and goat-pox (variola caprina) are independent diseases, while 



340 ACUTE EXANTHEMATOUS INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

the pox of other animals (ox, horse, swine) are merely modi- 
fications of these. 

It is extremely probable that in the beginning all forms of 
variola had a common origin. By continued passage for 
several generations through different species of animals, how- 
ever, the virus has become so adapted to the specific species 
in which it has propagated, that transmissability to other 
species of animals no longer occurs through natural infection 
and is difficult to bring about by inoculation. 

Etiology. — From recent experiments it has been determined 
that filtering the virus of the variola of different animals and 
man does not decrease its virulency unless very fine filters 
are employed. It is probable, therefore, that the cause is an 
ultramicroscopic organism. 

The virus is contained in the papule, vesicles, and crusts. 
It is doubtful whether the expirium or blood of the varioloid 
patient is infectious. The secretions and excretions are in- 
fective when contaminated with the contents of the vesicles. 

Sheep-pox (Variola Ovina). — Definition. — A specific infec- 
tious disease of sheep characterized by a cutaneous eruption 
which passes through the stages of papule, vesicle, pustule, 
and crust. 

Occurrence. — Sheep-pox is not known in the United States. 
While its home is in Asia, outbreaks have occurred in Europe 
and Africa. When the disease becomes epizootic it causes 
considerable economic losses from death and the damage it 
causes the wool. 

Etiology. — The cause is probably an ultramicroscopic 
organism. 

Natural Infection. — The virus enters through the respiratory 
tract and is carried from the lung alveoli by the blood to the skin 
and mucous membranes. Intratracheal injections of the con- 
tents of the vesicles (lymph) readily produce the disease, 
while feeding experiments have negative results provided 
inhalation was excluded. Impregnating the air a distance 
from susceptible sheep with a spray of pox lymph or the 
dried crusts gave positive results. 

A flock of sheep is usually infected by direct contact with a 
variolous sheep, one convalescent from the disease, and in 



VARIOLA— POX 341 

countries where protective inoculation is practised, from a 
vaccinated lamb. In rarer instances the contagion is trans- 
mitted through intermediary agents (pelts, wool, food, bed- 
ding, clothing of attendants, etc.). During the crust and 
desquamative stages of the disease the affected sheep are 
especially dangerous to susceptible ones. As the wool will 
retain the desquamated scales for several weeks, the disease 
may be spread by a sheep fully recovered from variola, the 
infection being carried in the fleece. Lambs are much more 
susceptible than adult sheep. 

Intra-uterine infection, the lamb being born with the dis- 
ease, is not rare. In other instances the lamb born of a vari- 
olous ewe, comes into the world healthy but is an immune. 
The period of incubation is about one week except in cold 
weather when it may be longer. 

Symptoms. — Preceding the eruption there is commonly 
fever (105° to 107° ¥.), languor, catarrhal conjunctivitis and 
rhinitis, loss of appetite and suppressed rumination. The 
patients seem stiff and extremely sensitive over the back and 
loins. In one or two days on different parts of the skin 
usually not covered by wool (eyes, inner surface of the thighs, 
chest, abdomen, under the tail) small, dark red-colored, flea- 
bite-like spots (papules) appear which in three to five days 
develop into lentil-sized blisters (vesicles) filled with a clear 
fluid. The vesicles often present a depression in the centre 
(umbilicated) while some are simply flattened on top. i\.bout 
the seventh day after the appearance of the eruption the 
contents of the vesicles become turbid, containing pus 
(pustule). Usually three days later the pustules erupt and 
dry, forming in the edematously infiltrated, reddened skin 
about them firm gray scabs which later become brown in 
color. The scabs in three to five days become detached, 
leaving a pit. All the vesicles do not appear at the same 
time, but continue to form at intervals, materially prolonging 
the course of the exanthema in the individual which may 
present all the successive stages of the eruption at the same 
time. The temperature which is high during the prodromal 
stage, falls when the eruption develops but rises again when 
the pustules form (secondary infection). When the pustules 



342 ACUTE EXANTHEMATOUS INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

erupt the temperature becomes normal. The odor of sheep- 
pox, which is peculiarly sweetish and nauseating, is quite dis- 
tinctive. It is most marked in the early stages and often of 
diagnostic value. 

The eruption also appears in the mucous membranes, pro- 
ducing when in the mouth, ptyalism; throat, dysphagia; 
bowel, diarrhea, and in the bronchi, cough. 

The following modifications in sheep-pox are observed: 

(a) Abortive, Mild Type. — Either no eruption appears in the 
skin or only a very few isolated lesions as in " varioloid" of 
man. The general disturbance is not marked and the course 
benign. 

(b) No vesicles form, the reddish papules in a few days 
becoming detached and disappearing. 

(c) Confluent Pox. — This is a more severe form, the pustules 
occurring very close together and finally .blending, it is 
most marked on the head, the skin of which becomes swollen 
and may slough; secondary pus infections take place, leading 
to pyemia and septicemia. There may be severe pharyngitis 
and conjunctivitis followed by keratitis and blindness. 

(d) Hemorrhagic Pox.— Between the papules dark red 
blood spots appear which involve the subcutis. Nasal 
hemorrhage, hematuria, bloody diarrhea and internal hemor- 
rhage are not infrequent. This form (similar to "black 
smallpox" of man) is very fatal. 

(e) Gangrenous Pox. — Probably due to a secondary in- 
fection (necrosis bacillus?) is not a special form but may 
attend otherwise usual outbreaks. Portions of the skin, and 
even the underlying muscle in the region of the eruption 
become necrotic and slough. 

Complications. — (a) Dermatitis may develop from rubbing 
and scratching the vesicles, especially in the region of the lips 
and nostrils. 

(b) Blindness from ulcerative keratitis and later suppura- 
tive panophthalmia. 

(c) Bronchitis and catarrhal pneumonia. 

(d) Gastro-intestinal catarrh. 

(e) Suppurative arthritis of the phalangeal joints, shedding 
of the claws and general pyemia. 



VARIOLA— POX 343 

Diagnosis. — The peculiar character of the exanthema and 
the typical course usually make the diagnosis easy. It would 
hardly be confused with scab or pustulous eczema, as neither 
of these diseases present marked prodromes and in neither 
develop well-defined, large vesicles. 

Course. — The course is acute, usually requiring about three 
or four weeks to pass through the different stages. Through 
complications, cold weather and in run-down sheep, the course 
may be considerably prolonged. Sheep-pox may remain in a 
flock for several months. 

The mortality varies with the form the disease assumes. 
While in the milder forms it may not exceed 4 per cent., the 
more malignant types claim fully 50 per cent, as victims. 

Treatment and Prophylaxis. — Usually a dietetic treatment is 
all that is necessary (grass, roots, gruels). In mild weather 
the sheep should be turned out to pasture. Severely infected 
animals should be slaughtered. The medicinal treatment 
(disinfectants for eyes, salts for bowels) is expectative and 
symptomatic. Sporadic outbreaks in uninfected districts are 
best eradicated by slaughter and proper disposition of the 
carcasses. 

In permanently infected countries "ovination" or pro- 
tective inoculation with sheep-pox virus has been practised 
with varying results. The practice is dangerous in districts 
where the disorder occurs only sporadically, as the inoculated 
sheep can spread the disease. 

Cow-pox (Variola Vaccina). — Definition. — Cow-pox is a be- 
nign, eruptive disease of the ox which occurs enzootically and 
is characterized by a vesiculopustular exanthema occurring 
most commonly in the udders of milch cows. 

Occurrence. — Cow-pox is widely distributed. It is a fre- 
quent disease among dairy cows, to which it is spread by 
recently vaccinated milkers, attendants, etc. 

Etiology. — The cause is evidently an ultramicroscopic 
organism which passes through coarse but not fine filters. 

Natural Infection. — Cow-pox is most commonly first intro- 
duced into a healthy herd by recently vaccinated persons, 
especially milkers who convey the virus directly to the udder 
through the act of milking. It is also usually spread from 



344 ACUTE EXANTHEMATOUS INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

cow to cow in the same manner. The disease may also be 
propagated by contaminated litter, forage, food etc., which 
explains its occurrence in heifers, steers, and bulls. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is four to seven days. 
The prodromal symptoms are usually so mild as to be over- 
looked. Occasionally symptoms of general disturbance 
(fever, loss of appetite, languor) precede the eruption. The 
first local symptom noted is usually a sensitiveness of the 
teats during milking. In two or three days on or at the base 
of the teat and on the udder appear pea-sized papules which 
in forty-eight hours form vesicles the size of a bean. The 
vesicles contain a clear fluid and are often pearl-like in color. 
On the udder they are usually round and on the teats oval in 
form. They are noted best on the udder, near the base of the 
teat where they are less liable to be broken by the milker's 
hands. The vesicles are usually surrounded by a red zone. 
When intact they are frequently umbilicated. In eight to 
fourteen days pustules appear that erupt and dry to form 
crusts which slough, leaving shallow pits. As a rule only a 
few vesicles occur, usually not over a dozen and occasionally 
only one or two can be found. The eruption does not take 
place simultaneously, several days may elapse between the 
formation of individual or groups of vesicles. Those which 
form later are generally smaller than the earlier ones. 

As the vesicles, especially those which form on the teat, are 
crushed during milking, secondary changes due to traumatism 
and extraneous infection are usual. From the frequent irri- 
tation of milking there form ulcers with eventually indurated 
borders which heal only after several weeks. 

Parenchymatous mastitis is a common complication, espe- 
cially where milk-tubes are employed to draw off the milk 
from the affected teats. In males the disease is very rare and 
is said to involve the scrotal regions. 

A generalization of the eruption is very uncommon. In 
the few cases recorded the vesicles appeared in the inner side 
of the thigh, on the croup, body, chest, neck and muzzle. 

Diagnosis. — The typical exanthema, its spread from cow to 
cow and to the hands of the milkers, the absence of general 
symptoms and the benign course characterize the disease. In 



FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE 345 

isolated cases where no vesicles can be found and the only 
lesions apparent a teat ulcer, the diagnosis is impossible. 

Course. — The disease usually lasts several weeks in a herd, 
depending upon the number of susceptible animals and the 
precautions taken to prevent its spread. 

Prognosis. — Good. The disease is benign and does not 
cause death. Economic loss is occasioned through the diminu- 
tion and polution of the milk, the persistency of the teat ulcers 
and the cases of mastitis which develop during the course of 
an outbreak. 

Treatment. — No internal treatment is necessary. Washing 
the teats and udder after each milking with a 1 per cent, 
solution of sodium hyposulphite generally suffices. Sterile 
milk-tubes may be used when the teats are sore. The ulcers 
heal readily in ten to fourteen days provided they are not 
irritated during milking. 

Protective Inoculation. — Vaccinating cattle with calf lymph 
(vaccine points) intended for human beings has been prac- 
tised in Europe with apparently good results 

Horse-pox. — Definition. — Horse-pox is a local vesiculopus- 
tular eruption which occurs in the region of the fetlocks. 

Etiology. — It is probably cow-pox transmitted to horses by 
recently vaccinated horseshoers. 

Symptoms. — It is most frequent in young horses. The 
region of the fetlock becomes edematous and sensitive. In 
a few cases there may be mild general symptoms (fever) 
which are usually not noticed. In one or two days, on the 
posterior surface of the fetlocks, there develop pea- to bean- 
sized vesicles which soon burst and form crusts. Occurrence 
on other portions of the body is rare, although cases are 
recorded where the vesicles appeared on the head, about the 
mouth and nostrils and exceptionally the buccal mucous 
membrane was invaded. On the limbs a temporary change in 
the color of the hair, which becomes lighter, has been noted. 
The course is benign. 

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. 

Definition. — Foot-and-mouth disease is a very contagious 
disorder of cloven-hoofed animals, due to an ultramicroscopic 



346 ACUTE EXANTHEMATOUS INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

organism and characterized by the formation of vesicles which 
occur on the mucous membranes and skin. The mouth, the 
interdigital space and the teats and udder are most often 
affected. 

Occurrence. — The disease has been an occasional visitor to 
the United States. In 1870 foot-and-mouth disease spread 
from Canada into New England and New York; in 1884 
there was a limited outbreak in Portland, Maine; in 1902 
again in New England, in the States of Connecticut, Rhode 
Island, Massachusetts and Vermont; in 1908 it was intro- 
duced through contaminated smallpox vaccine into New 
York, Pennsylvania, Michigan and Maryland; in 1914 the 
most wide-spread outbreak in the history of the country 
occurred. Within three months the disease spread from the 
Chicago stockyards to Michigan and Ohio and ultimately 
infected twenty-one States and the District of Columbia. 
The origin of this outbreak is in dispute, but it prob- 
ably came from contaminated anti-hog cholera serum. In 
Europe, Asia and Africa and in South America foot-and- 
mouth disease is prevalent. While not an especially fatal 
disease, it occasions enormous losses due to its rapid spread, 
the damage it causes the milk industry, the losses entailed 
through quarantine and the sequelae (loss of claws, mastitis, 
etc.) which follow in the wake of an outbreak. The damage 
done the cattle industry amounts to an average of $20 per 
head for each animal affected. 

Etiology. — The cause is evidently an ultramicroscopic virus 
which passes through coarse but not the finest bacterial filters. 
The virus is present in the vesicles and is found in the blood 
only in the early part of the fever stage. The saliva, tears, 
milk and nasal discharge are infectious from contamination 
with the contents of the vesicles. As the disease progresses 
the virulency of the virus decreases. 

Natural Infection. — The virus of foot-and-mouth disease is 
taken up by the digestive tract with food, water, bedding, 
litter, etc. which have become contaminated principally by 
the saliva of affected animals. Such intermediary agents as 
stable utensils, mangers, watering troughs, clothing and the 
hands of attendants, etc., may also harbor the virus. Railway 



FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE 347 

cars, stockyards, cattle pens, manure, hides, wool, milk, 
veterinarians, butchers, cattle dealers, herders, etc., are also 
carriers of the contagion. Hay, straw, feed and the like 
imported from infected districts often spread the disease. In 
1908, as noted, foot-and-mouth disease was introduced into 
the United States by some calves used for the propagation of 
vaccine virus, which had been inoculated with contaminated 
lymph imported from Japan. It is very probable that re- 
covered animals ("germ carriers") may harbor the virus for 
an indefinite period, which accounts for sporadic outbreaks of 
the disease in uninfected districts. 

While cattle are most predisposed, the disorder also attacks 
sheep, swine, goats and buffalo. It is rare in horses, dogs and 
cats. 

One attack produces immunity for only a short period 
(usually not over one year). In certain individuals no 
immunity is conferred, the animal suffering within a few 
months repeated attacks. Calves born of cows attacked in 
advanced pregnancy are sometimes (not always) highly re- 
sistant to either natural infection or artificial inoculation. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is two to seven days, 
although it may be longer. 

The prodromal symptoms are those of fever, the tempera- 
ture reaching 106° F., lasting one or two days, and falling to 
normal as soon as the vesicles appear. Unless complications 
arise from secondary infection, no further rise in temperature 
occurs during the course of the disease. 

With the fever there is a period of loss of appetite, sup- 
pressed rumination and languor. The mouths of the patients 
become sore, causing them to masticate slowly and in an 
interrupted fashion. The mouth is usually held closed, saliva 
hanging from the commissures in long strands. When opened 
a peculiar smacking sound is made. Where a number of 
affected cattle are housed together the noise produced is 
marked. 

On examining the mouth one or two days after the begin- 
ning of the attack, the mucous membrane, especially of the 
lips, gums, dental pad and tongue, shows a vesicular eruption, 
the individual vesicles varying in size from a pea to a walnut. 



348 ACUTE EXANTHEMATOUS INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

The large blisters rupture in about one day, leaving behind an 
excoriated surface of a brown-red color, which is often covered 
with a gray deposit. The smaller vesicles persist for two or 
three days. On the back of the tongue one to three walnut- 
sized vesicles are often noted. As the organ is extremely sore 
and therefore little moved, the blisters remain intact for two 
or three days. The contents of the vesicles are clear or 
yellowish. Where they erupt a very sensitive, highly red- 
dened, shallow erosion is left which becomes covered with new 
epithelium in two or three days. When healing is well under 
way the eroded area appears as a brown-yellow spot which 
eventually disappears. As soon as the erosions are sufficiently 
covered with epithelium the emaciated patient begins to eat. 

In some cases the muzzle (snout of swine), base of the 
horns (very rare), nasal mucous membrane, conjunctiva, 
pharynx (dysphagia, cough, regurgitation) and even the 
cornea are similarly involved. 

The foot lesions induce lameness with knuckling of the 
fetlock of the limb attacked. If two or more feet are af- 
fected the patient lies down most of the time and is made to 
arise with difficulty. The coronet is hot and swollen, espe- 
cially in front and between the bulbs of the heels. In some 
cases the swelling extends up the leg to the middle of the 
canon. On the second or third day of the attack pea- to 
bean-sized vesicles appear in the swollen area. The vesicles 
rupture very early and leave behind sores covered with a 
tough, brown scab. Healing usually requires one or two 
weeks. In severe cases, from secondary infection, shedding 
of the claws results. 

In swine and sheep only the feet may be attacked, no 
mouth lesions being apparent. 

In cows the skin of the teats and udder is often affected, 
most often the former. The vesicles are from the size of a 
pea to a hazel nut and are generally ruptured during milking. 
The teats are swollen, sometimes phlegmonous (secondary in- 
fection) and extremely sensitive. Later the sores become 
covered with scabs and heal. 

Catarrhal mastitis frequently attends the exanthema, lead- 
ing to changes in the milk, which becomes colostral, has an 



FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE 349 

acid reaction, coagulates readily and is difficult to make into 
butter or cheese. 

Complications and Sequelae. — The most serious complica- 
tions are phlegmons of the digits which lead to suppurative 
inflammation of the tendon sheaths, tendons, joints and 
horn matrix, inducing severe general disturbance (fever, high 
pulse) , inability to stand, decubital gangrene, septicemia and 
death in one or two weeks. 

Septic infection of the udder (parenchymatous mastitis) 
is not an uncommon complication which may cause the loss of 
a quarter or a half of the organ. 

Gastro-enteritis is a fatal complication in calves, leading to 
death in two or three days. 

Diagnosis. — In typical cases, during the vesicular stage 
of the eruption, the diagnosis is not difficult. The presence of 
vesicles, the foot lesions, the rapid spread of the contagion 
and the ease with which it may be transmitted artificially 
characterize the disorder. 

During the early stages (before the eruption) and at the 
end of a sporadic outbreak (vesicles healed or only secondary 
changes present) the diagnosis can be extremely difficult. 

Foot-and-mouth disease may be confused with various 
forms of stomatitis in cattle, none of which are contagious 
but some of which are attended with vesicle formation. The 
most important are the following : 

(a) Traumatic stomatitis ("tooth cuts") presents lesions on 
the bars, lips and dental pad. There is no vesicle formation 
and the wounds have sharp borders and are deep. 

(b) Mycotic stomatitis of cattle, a non-contagious foot-and- 
mouth affection wide-spread in the United States. Vesicles 
rarely appear and are never well developed. The mouth 
lesions are more ulcerous in character than in foot-and-mouth 
disease and are more apt to involve the deeper structures. 
There is more swelling of the limbs but no vesicles occur at the 
coronets. A peculiar reddish-brown coloration of the muzzle, 
udder and teats is considered characteristic by some authori- 
ties. The disease cannot be transmitted by inoculation and 
does not affect sheep or swine. Often only a few animals in 
a herd are attacked. 



350 ACUTE EXANTHEMATOUS INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

(c) Ergotism. — Ergotism produces gangrene of the distal 
portions of the extremities (feet, ears, tail), the necrotic parts 
sloughing. Blisters are not common and when present not 
well marked. This poisoning is not contagious and cannot be 
transmitted artificially from animal to animal. It occurs 
only among cattle which have eaten ergot-of-rye. 

(d) Necrotic Stomatitis. — Nearly always seen in calves 
("calf diphtheria") and pigs ("sore mouth"). There is no 
vesicle formation but a necrosis of the mucous membrane, 
yellow-gray patches developing in the mouth (cheeks, 
tongue) . 

(e) Foot-rot of Sheep. — A contagious disease of the inter- 
digital space which may later induce suppurative pododerma- 
titis, tendovaginitis, open joint, etc. There are no vesicles 
and the disease spreads slowly through a flock. 

(/) Foul-in-the-f eet of cattle due to filthy stables and barn- 
yards does not affect the mouth; there are no vesicles and no 
contagion. A malignant type of foul-in-the-f eet due to the 
necrosis bacillus and appearing in cows soon after parturition 
or in ad vanced pregnancy, assumes the form of a necrosis of the 
interdigital space which may involve the deeper structures 
(matrix, tendon sheaths, tendons, joints). It is attended by 
fever when secondary infection is present. The mouth is not 
involved. 

The indications which point to foot-and-mouth disease in 
a recently recovered animal are : Pytalism (usually profuse) ; 
yellow cicatrices or areas on gums and dental pad; small red 
spots and erosions in the gums and borders of the muzzle. 
These traces are said to persist for several weeks. 

Course. — In most outbreaks the course is benign. Indivi- 
dual vesicles usually heal in five or six days, but as they do not 
all erupt at the same time, the duration is often extended two 
or three weeks. The mouth lesions heal more rapidly than 
do those of the feet. As all animals are not infected simul- 
taneously, an outbreak will last in a given barn one or two 
months. 

In calves (under two months) the course is more rapid and 
fatal (toxemia, septicemia, pyemia, gangrenous pneumonia, 
heart muscle degeneration) leading to death in three or four 
days. 



FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE 351 

From resulting foot troubles (panaritium, suppurative 
tendovaginitis, open joint, interdigital ulceration), loss of 
flesh and milk (udder complications) the course is not only 
prolonged but the patient's economic value may become 
permanently reduced. 

Prognosis. — The disease is benign except in very young 
animals, when it assumes a malignant form and when com- 
plications due to secondary infection occur (loss of claws, 
decubitus, septicemia, etc.). It is rare for the mortality to 
exceed 1 per cent, in the benign type. It may exceed 50 
per cent., however, in the rarer, malignant type. 

Treatment. — In countries like the United States, which are 
not permanently infected, no treatment should be tolerated. 
The extreme contagiousness of the disease and its rapid 
spread justify the most radical methods of eradication. 
These consist in the immediate slaughter of all affected ani- 
mals, the proper disposition of the carcasses (deep burial, 
cremation) and a thorough disinfection of the premises. 

In countries where foot-and-mouth disease is wide-spread 
and radical methods of stamping it out cannot be employed, 
the following indications in the way of therapy are followed : 

The cattle should be fed only soft, sloppy food (bran 
mashes, root pulp, grass) and allowed plenty of water. The 
mouths may be irrigated twice daily with some non-toxic 
disinfectant (pyoctanin 1 to 1000). The stable floors should 
be kept clean and dry and the feet treated with disinfectants 
(may be stood in a shallow bath of 2 per cent, creolin solution) . 
To the teats and udder boroglycerin, camphor ointment, etc., 
are useful. Mastitis should be treated as such. Complica- 
tions (shedding of claws, tendovaginitis, etc.) are handled 
according to surgical principles. 

The milk should not be used during the outbreak. In a 
raw state it is fatal to sucklings and when sterilized it is not 
wholesome. 

General symptoms (heart weakness, high fever) are met 
as they occur (oil of camphor subcutaneously, digitalis, al- 
cohol, acetanilid). 

As foot-and-mouth disease is a self-limiting disease which 
usually takes a typical course, in uncomplicated cases not 
much medicinal treatment is needed. 



352 ACUTE EXANTHEMATOUS INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Formerly it was a common practice, when foot-and-mouth 
disease appeared on the premises, to inoculate all cattle still 
healthy by rubbing saliva from an infected animal into the 
mucous membrane of the mouth. This method infected the 
whole herd simultaneously and lessened the virulence of the 
attack. It is seldom permitted nowadays, although it has 
much to recommend it. 

Protective and Therapeutic Inoculations. — Various methods 
(for which see larger works) of preventive vaccination have 
been tried with as yet indifferent success. 

CONTAGIOUS STOMATITIS OF THE HORSE. 

Definition. — Contagious pustulous stomatitis is an acute, 
benign, infectious disease of the horse characterized by its 
marked contagiousness and the appearance of pustules in the 
mucous membrane of the mouth. Sometimes the nasal 
mucosa and the skin of the lips are involved. 

Occurrence. — The disease is widely distributed, appearing 
enzootically chiefly among colts or young horses herded 
together in barns or on pastures. While the disease is usually 
benign, the patients lose flesh and older horses are often unable 
to work during the attack. Occasionally foreign-body pneu- 
monia may complicate the disease (pneumonia medicantaria 
from needless drenching). 

Etiology. — The cause is unknown. The virus seems to be 
contained in the nodules and pustules; the saliva is therefore 
virulent. The disease is readily transmitted artificially. A 
spread to other animals (sheep, cattle, swine) and even man is 
recorded. This is rare, however, as the disease is seen ordi- 
narily only in the horse. 

Natural Infection.— Contagious pustulous stomatitis is 
spread by the saliva of the sick which contaminates the food 
and water. Transmission through polluted stable litter, 
utensils, sponges, hands of attendants, etc., also occurs. The 
disease does not assume an epizootic form probably because 
the virulency of the virus rapidly attenuates in passing from 
animal to animal. Usually all horses exposed do not become 
infected. 



CONTAGIOUS STOMATITIS OF THE HORSE 353 

The disease is generally introduced into a stable or pasture 
by an infected animal. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is three to five days. 
The first symptoms noted are usually impairment of appetite 
and ptyalism. The patient holds the mouth shut; if opened 
a quantity of saliva spills out. The saliva is very viscid and 
hangs in long threads from the mouth. The lips and cheeks 
are somewhat swollen and tender. On examination of the 
mouth, which the patient often resists, the mucosa appears 
congested and streaked with red. On the mucous surface of 
the lips, gums, the hard palate and particularly beneath the 
tongue about the frenum appear firm red papules the size of 
a pea. The papules do not all erupt at the same time, but 
successively, a fresh crop appearing after two or three days. 
From the papules vesicles form. The smaller vesicles break 
and heal while the larger ones turn to pustules which perfo- 
rate, leaving behind small round ulcers. Sometimes two or 
more ulcers coalesce forming large irregular areas of ulcera- 
tion. The ulcers usually heal in a few days, leaving behind 
a white scar. 

In some cases the pustular eruption may involve the lower 
part of the nasal mucosa especially of the wings of the nostrils. 
Nasal discharge may be present which dries and adheres as 
brown crusts to the borders of the alse. In rare instances the 
lacrimonasal canal is invaded, the infection spreading through 
it to the conjunctiva. 

Sometimes the external skin is involved. There appear on 
the lips, nostrils and cheeks papules, vesicles and pustules like 
those observed on mucous membranes. Cases are recorded 
where the eruption appeared on other parts of the body 
(breast, shoulder, thigh). 

The lymph vessels and glands adjacent to the eruption fre- 
quently swell, the vessels forming cord-like strands. There is 
no tendency, however, for abscesses to form along their course 
as in strangles. The submaxillary lymph glands are swollen. 

Diagnosis.- — The diagnosis is usually not difficult. If the 

case is at all typical, it is exceedingly easy. The contagious 

character of the disease and the formation of papules ending 

in pustules and ulcers is indicative. In vesicular stomatitis, 

23 



354 ACUTE EXANTHEMATOUS INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

which develops only in the mucous membrane of the lower 
jaw especially in the region of the frenum of the tongue, 
vesicles (clear fluid contents) appear but never papules. 
Small abscesses ano? ulcers which occur in the mucous mem- 
brane of the mouth as the result of traumatism or caustics 
do not form pustules, the ulcers are usually deeper seated, and 
there is no evidence of contagiousness. In contagious acne 
the mucous membranes are not involved, although large 
pustules appear upon the skin in the region of the harness 
rests. It could be confused only with those rare cases of 
contagious pustulous stomatitis which do not involve the 
mucous membranes. Coital exanthema affects the genital 
organs. Horse-pox is confined to the region of the fetlocks. 
If the nasal mucosa is involved contagious pustulous stoma- 
titis might be confused with glanders. Glanders, however, 
does not affect the buccal cavity. The ready healing of the 
ulcers and the rapid spread to other horses are not noted in 
glanders. 

Course. — The disease usually lasts about two weeks and 
ends in complete recovery. It requires three to six days for 
the pustules to develop, they remain about four or five days 
and form ulcers which heal in about the same time. Severe 
cases may take a more protracted course in that one eruption 
follows another in succession. Fatal cases are rare. They 
result usually from secondary infection with pus organisms or 
the necrosis bacillus or in that pharyngitis develops from the 
specific process extending back to the pharynx, causing dys- 
phagia and occasionally foreign-body pneumonia. 

Treatment. — Internal medication is rarely indicated. The 
patient should be fed soft food such as grass, gruels, bran 
mashes, etc., and allowed constant access to fresh water. The 
mouth may be syringed out two or three times daily with a 
2 per cent, lysol solution. Skin ulcers may be treated with 
compound alum powder. 

Prophylaxis. — If only a few horses are affected they should 
be isolated and given separate attendants. If, however, the 
disease is generally distributed and further spread inevitable, 
to shorten the course of the outbreak it is recommendable to 
inoculate the still healthy animals. This is easily performed 



COITAL EXANTHEMA 355 

by taking a clean towel, passing it through the mouth of an 
infected animal, and then through the mouth of those animals 
which have not yet taken the disease. A thorough disin- 
fection of the premises should follow. 

COITAL EXANTHEMA. 

Eruptive Venereal Diseases. Genital Horse-pox. 

Definition.— Coital exanthema is a benign acute contagious 
disease of the external genital organs of cattle, horses, sheep 
and swine. It is characterized by a vesicular eruption which 
is transmitted from animal to animal by the act of coitus. 

Occurrence. — The disease is very common in horses and 
cattle, outbreaks occurring during the spring and summer. 
It is sometimes confused with variola with which it has prob- 
ably no connection. While the disease is benign it interferes 
with breeding, lactation in cows, and by affecting a number of 
animals in a district, attains economic importance. It is 
quite common in the United States. 

Etiology. — The cause of the disease is not yet known. The 
virus seems to be contained in the lymph of the vesicle or the 
pus of the pustule or ulcer from which it may be transmitted 
by artificial inoculation. 

Natural Infection. — Coital exanthema is nearly always trans- 
mitted by coition whereby the male animal infects the female 
and vice versa. The disease is spread usually by an infected 
stallion or bull. It is claimed that the male may transmit 
the disease without himself becoming infected in that the 
infectious secretions from a diseased female adhere to the 
penis and are lodged in the vulva or vagina of the female 
served by him soon after. This naturally would only apply 
where the service was performed within an hour or two 
following copulation with an infected female. 

The disease once in a while occurs in females in advanced 
pregnancy, also in animals which have not been bred. This 
would indicate that occasionally intermediary agents such as 
contaminated stable litter, utensils, sponges, etc., may carry 
infection. 



356 ACUTE EXANTHEMATOUS INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Cattle seem to be more susceptible than horses ; the disease 
is less commonly seen in sheep, goats, and swine. One attack 
produces a transient immunity, although cases are recorded 
where one and the same animal has been attacked repeatedly. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is usually from two to 
five days. A minimum period of twenty-four hours and a 
maximum period of nearly two weeks have been recorded. 
The first symptoms in females are inflammation of the 
mucous membrane of the vulva and vagina in which appear 
small red papules which in two or three days form red, pea- 
sized vesicles containing a clear yellow fluid. The lesions 
are commonly found in the upper commissure of the vulva 
and in the neighborhood of the clitoris and the mucous surface 
of the lips of the vulva. 

Similar eruptions may invade the skin around the vulva, 
anus, and the perineum. In a short time, from secondary 
infection, the vesicles become pustules, which erupt, leaving 
behind shallow ulcers which heal readily by granulation. In 
some cases, however, the ulcers are deeper, and when they 
heal there is left behind a white or yellow scar which in time 
tends to disappear. In some instances after the eruption of 
the pustule tough, yellow crusts nearly a quarter of an inch 
thick remain. When these crusts are removed or drop off, 
white areas remain which are usually small and circular, but 
by confluence larger and irregular in form. 

The lips of the vulva are edematously swollen as may be 
the surrounding parts. In mares repeated blinking of the 
vulva is noted. There is a vaginal discharge of a mucopuru- 
lent character which soils the tail and buttocks. 

In male animals a similar eruption appears upon the penis, 
prepuce, and sheath. The penis itself is swollen, and from 
the urethra flows a mucopurulent discharge. The above- 
described depigmented areas noted in female animals are also 
seen on the penis in males. Urination is frequent and accom- 
panied by considerable straining, the patient often switching 
its tail, arching the back and kicking against its abdomen. 
In males, especially stallions, the penis is often erected and a 
yellowish mucopurulent discharge flows from the urethra. 

Ordinarily the general condition of the animal is not im- 



COITAL EXANTHEMA 357 

paired. The appetite is usually retained and there is no loss 
of flesh. On the other hand, where the eruption has been 
extensive and associated with much pruritus, there may be 
restlessness, frequent straining as if to urinate, the patient 
seeming much disturbed. 

Pruritus, however, is not a constant symptom. 

The usual benign course of the disease may be perverted 
by secondary infection or through the patient rubbing the 
ulcerous surfaces. Thus in individual cases general pyemia 
or septicemia may follow. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is usually not difficult. The 
appearance of the vesicles and the ready spread by coition 
usually suffice for a diagnosis. If, however, no vesicles can 
be found, the condition might be confused with ulceration 
due to other causes. In this regard the rapid healing of the 
ulcer is suggestive. In granular vaginitis of cattle, red-gray 
nodules appear which give to the affected parts of the vagina 
a granular appearance. Vesicles are very rarely noted. The 
disease could hardly be confused with dourine, as it is much 
more contagious, its course more rapid and termination 
benign. 

Course. — The course of the disease is usually brief and mild. 
Spontaneous recovery occurs in the majority of cases in two 
to four weeks. In severe cases or where proper treatment has 
not been applied the secondary lesions developing from trau- 
matism or infection may take months to cure. In rare in- 
stances chronic vaginal catarrh, metritis, cystitis and the 
like may follows In bulls abscess of the penis may perma- 
nently deform the organ or so weaken it that the animal is 
incapable of performing the coital act. 

Treatment. — In mild cases no special treatment is necessary, 
although it is advisable to wash off the affected parts of the 
genital organs with disinfectants (phenol 5j, tannin 5J, 
glycerin gvj, water one gallon). Before applying disinfec- 
tants to the penis it should be w T ashed thoroughly with soap 
and water, rinsed and dried. Obstinate ulcers which remain 
behind may be treated with nitrate of silver or copper sul- 
phate. Some recommend flushing out the urethra with mild 
antiseptics. This is, however, rarely necessary. That an 
infected animal should not be bred is obvious. 



CHAPTER III. 

ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES LOCALIZED IN 
CERTAIN ORGANS. 

STRANGLES. CORYZA CONTAGIOSA EQUORUM. 

Definition. — Strangles is an acute contagioinfectious dis- 
ease of horses, asses and mules, due to a specific streptococcus, 
which leads to catarrh of the upper air passages and abscess 
formation in lymph glands. 

Occurrence. — Strangles is a disease of colthood and is 
therefore most prevalent in breeding districts. Adult or 
aged horses are more rarely attacked. The disease is most 
common in colts from six months to five years of age, although 
cases in patients under two months are not rare. The dis- 
ease is wide-spread, but Ireland and the Argentine Republic 
are said to be free from it. Generally speaking, strangles is 
a benign disease, but by checking the growth and sometimes 
causing the death of colts, it attains economic significance. 
Furthermore, some outbreaks are malignant in character 
and lead either to considerable losses from death (internal 
abscesses) or permanent injury through sequelse (roaring, 
pharyngeal paralysis) . 

Etiology. — The Streptococcus equi of Shiitz, found in the 
lymph glands and nasal discharge of affected animals. 

Natural Infection. — The streptococcus probably enters the 
body through the intact nasal mucous membrane, although 
other mucous surfaces (throat, bowel, vagina) may form ports 
of entry. Nasal discharge and pus from lymph-gland ab- 
scesses or more rarely skin lesions are taken in with the food 
and water, reaching the upper air passages. 

In breeding establishments strangles is usually introduced 
by a horse which has not yet fully recovered from the disease. 



STRANGLES— CORYZA CONTAGIOSA EQUORUM 359 

By direct contact with such an animal or one showing pro- 
nounced symptoms of the disease susceptible horses are readily 
infected. In a barn where strangles exists the air will be 
more or less impregnated with globlets of discharge containing 
streptococci, especially if the ventilation is bad. Mangers, 
water buckets, troughs, stall partitions and floors contami- 
nated with nasal or abscess discharge, may under favorable 
conditions retain the infection for several months. There- 
fore, horses placed in stables where the disease has existed or 
if they are permitted to eat or drink out of infected buckets, 
watering troughs, etc., may ingest the streptococci of the 
disease. Livery and dealers' stables are thus more or less 
permanent sources of infection, each year outbreaks occurring 
in them. 

Colts may infect their dams by nursing; stallions, mares 
during the act of coitus. Intra-uterine infection may also 
occur. 

Some outbreaks which are not traceable to any recogniz- 
able source may possibly be due to a saprophytic life which 
the streptococcus is thought to assume. 

One attack of strangles usually affords life-long immunity. 
There are, however, many exceptions, individual animals 
suffering two or more attacks of the disease. 

Any factor (refrigeration, overwork, poor food and care, 
etc.) which reduces the resistance of the horse predisposes it 
to the disease. 

Necropsy. — The postmortem lesions are those of pyemia 
with abscesses in lymph glands (mediastinal, bronchial, mes- 
enteric) or in any of the parenchymatous organs. Broncho- 
pneumonia or suppurative pneumonia with lung abscess alone 
or combined with pleuritis and pericarditis is commonly 
noted. In the abdominal cavity the mesenteric lymph glands 
are found involved. In some instances a spontaneous rupture 
of the abscess has occurred leading to a diffuse purulent 
peritonitis. In others a more chronic condition is noted 
(adhesive peritonitis) with adherent loops of bowel. Where 
there has been general metastasis, multiple abscesses may 
form in any organ of the body (brain, muscle, thymus, 
heart, etc.). 



360 DISEASES LOCALIZED IN CERTAIN ORGANS 

Symptoms. — From a clinical standpoint it is useful to 
classify the cases in two types : (a) regular strangles, and (b) 
irregular ("bastard") strangles. 

Cases of regular strangles are those which take a relatively 
rapid and benign course, while those spoken of as irregular 
have a protracted course or suffer threatening complications 
or sequelae. The period of incubation is from one to eight 
days, usually three or four days. The symptoms of the first 
type are: Cough from an affection of the larynx or bronchi. 
The cough may persist a week or two after the other symp- 
toms have subsided. 

Nasal Discharge. — At first the discharge is watery but soon 
becomes mucopurulent. It is usually viscid and copious. If 
dysphagia is present, food, water or saliva are mixed with 
it. The discharge usually lasts eight to fourteen days, 
gradually becoming less. 

Fever. — The temperature is usually elevated in the begin- 
ning of the disease to 102.5° to 104.8° F. Other symptoms of 
fever such as languor, lowered head, disinclination to move, 
rough hair coat and sometimes chill are noted. When the 
abscesses are evacuated the temperature drops. 

Swelling of the Lymph Glands. — Concomitant with the 
catarrhal symptoms a swelling appears and usually in the 
intermaxillary space. In most cases the swelling is edema- 
tous, hot, painful and fills the space between the jaws, and 
tends to suppurate, becoming "ripe" in four to eight days. 
In other cases, notably in older horses, and in patients which 
have suffered previous attacks of strangles the swelling is not 
marked and does not lead to abscess. Commonly the abscess 
opens spontaneously in six to ten days. 

Dysphagia. — From the attending pharyngitis the patient 
will hold the head extended and through the nostrils water, 
saliva or even solid food particles are discharged. From the 
mouth saliva drools. The appetite is more or less impaired, 
depending on the severity of the attack. The patient will 
often refuse concentrates (oats, corn) but eat some hay or 
grass. The thirst is not increased. 

The Respirations. — If the disease is confined largely to the 
nasal mucosa, the respirations remain about normal. When 



STRANGLES— CORYZA CONTAGIOSA EQUORUM 361 

the laryngeal or bronchial mucous membranes are much 
swollen, dyspnea with dilation of the nostrils occurs, the 
frequency often as high as 25 per minute. 

The Pulse. — The pulse in the beginning of the disease is 
not much affected but later may reach 76 or higher. 

The Conjunctiva. — Frequently in the earlier stages there is 
a flow of tears, and later a thick mucous discharge from the 
inner canthus of each eye. In mild cases this symptom may 
not appear. 

Irregular Strangles {Bastard Strangles). — In nearly every 
enzootic of strangles some cases develop which differ in symp- 
tomatology from the typical form described. The principal 
difference between the regular and irregular types of strangles 
lies in the fact that in the latter the abscesses develop by way 
of metastasis in parts of the body other than in the submax- 
illary region. In irregular strangles any part of the organism 
may be elected as the seat of an abscess, although lymph 
glands are most apt to be involved. 

For practical reasons only the most common seats will be 
considered. They will be grouped according to the part of 
the body in which they appear. 

Head. — (a) Abscess in the pharyngeal lymph glands. 
When these glands are involved there develops in the sub- 
parotid region a swelling which may be quite extensive. It 
may reach the upper surface of the larynx, displacing the 
organ ventrally, and cause dyspnea. As the pharyngeal 
lymph glands lie on the lateral surface of the pharynx, their 
enlargement may interfere with swallowing. A spontaneous 
rupture of the abscess may occur, the pus discharging into the 
pharynx (sudden, profuse nasal and mouth discharge) or into 
the guttural pouches (sudden disappearance of the swelling, 
copious nasal discharge, dysphagia) . 

(b) Abscess in the anterior cervical lymph glands. This 
causes swelling in the region of the thyroid glands. Fluctua- 
tion is usually present. The abscess usually bursts outwardly, 
although it may rupture into the gullet and lead to esophageal 
fistula. If the adjacent omohyoid muscle becomes infiltrated 
with pus, dysphagia and aspiration (foreign-body) pneumonia 
can follow. 



362 DISEASES LOCALIZED IN CERTAIN ORGANS 

(c) Abscess in the sublingual glands leads to swelling of the 
tongue. The organ may be so swollen as to protrude from 
the mouth. After bursting of the abscess, the edema of the 
tongue rapidly subsides. 

(d) The superficial lymph glands and vessels of the skin of 
the head may become involved. In this case in the regions 
of the eyes, nose, cheeks and lips, painful strands, the size 
of a slate-pencil, and surrounded by indurated tissue, are 
noted. Later nodules form along the course of the swollen 
lymph vessels. They finally erupt and discharge pus. In 
individual cases considerable swelling of the head occurs 
leading to severe dyspnea. 

(e) Abscesses in the facial sinuses may form and lead to 
empyema or very rarely to meningitis. 

Body. — (a) Abscesses in the subcutaneous lymph glands of 
the body rarely occur in the region of the withers, flanks, etc. 

(6) Abscesses may form in the mammary glands, involving 
one or both halves of the udder. In stallions scrotal abscesses 
have been observed. 

(c) The perianal lymph glands are sometimes elected, caus- 
ing retention of feces and symptoms of proctitis. 

Limbs. — (a) Abscess may form in the axillary, inguinal and 
popliteal lymph glands. While they usually heal readily, 
occasionally they are obstinate and induce lameness of con- 
siderable duration. This is especially true of popliteal 
abscesses. * 

(b) Abscess of joints (purulent arthritis) is not common. 
One or more joints may be attacked. When the leg joints 
are involved, there is severe lameness. 

Internal Abscesses. — (a) Abscesses of the posterior cervical 
lymph glands (prepectoral) sometimes rupture inwardly, pro- 
ducing purulent pleuritis and pneumonia. Pronounced dysp- 
nea and the usual signs on percussion and auscultation of the 
thorax are noted on physical examination. 

(6) Metastatic lung abscesses. The symptoms of pneu- 
monia (cough, purulent nasal discharge, temperature, auscul- 
tation and percussion) indicate the condition. 

(c) The mesenteric lymph glands. These glands may be 
primarily or secondarily involved. The symptoms are fever, 



STRANGLES— CORYZA CONTAGIOSA EQUORUM 363 

mild colic and a history of exposure to strangles. The con- 
dition leads to death either gradually or suddenly through 
rupture of the abscess and the resulting peritonitis. Similar 
symptoms may arise from abscess formation in any other of 
the lymph glands of the abdominal cavity whether they be 
parietal or visceral. 

Diagnosis. — The recognition of the usual case of strangles 
is not difficult. The purulent nasal discharge and abscess 
formation in the submaxillary region are characteristic. 
Cases occur, however, which are so atypical that from the 
clinical symptoms alone a diagnosis is impossible. The 
history of exposure to strangles, the age of the patient and 
the existence of more typical cases on the same premises may 
assist to establish a diagnosis. The microscopic examina- 
tion of the pus (nasal discharge) for streptococci and the inoc- 
ulation of experimental animals (white mice) are frequently of 
service in this regard. Very puzzling are those cases in which 
the abscesses form in internal organs (lymph glands of ab- 
domen), as the symptoms are often vague. The history of 
the case, the tendency to attacks of mild colic, the irregular 
temperature and the presence of albumoses in the urine are 
suggestive of hidden pus of probable strangles origin. 

Course and Prognosis. — Most cases of strangles heal readily 
in two to four weeks without complication. This is especially 
true of the usual benign type ("regular form") of the disease 
which is confined largely to the nasal cavities and lymph 
glands of the submaxillary space. On the other hand, when 
the disease assumes an atypical ("irregular") form, affecting 
the pharynx and its lymph glands or involving internal glands 
or organs (lungs, mediastinal glands, mesenteric, lumbar 
glands, brain, etc.) the course is greatly protracted, and the 
prognosis doubtful to bad. When, after the submaxillary 
abscess is evacuated, the temperature continues up or rises 
again after a temporary fall, the development of further 
abscesses is probable. In some cases, as the abscesses heal, 
fresh ones appear, prolonging the course and complicating the 
prognosis. The resistance of the patient and its surroundings 
are important factors in the prognosis. In very young colts, 
especially if lacking in vigor and growth, the disease is much 



364 DISEASES LOCALIZED IN CERTAIN ORGANS 

more apt to be fatal than in colts over one year of age. Suck- 
lings are not infrequently attacked in the pharyngeal lymph 
glands leading to severe dyspnea and serious dysphagia fol- 
lowed by foreign-body pneumonia. When the patients are 
neglected, kept in damp, dark, dirty stables and poorly fed, 
the course is longer and the prognosis not so good as when 
opposite conditions prevail. 

In some outbreaks the irregular form of the disease domi- 
nates, involving the internal lymph glands, especially of the 
abdomen and leading to death from peritonitis. 

The mortality is 1 to 3 per cent, in the benign form but 
may reach 20 to 30 per cent, in malignant outbreaks. 

The most frequent sequelae to strangles are : (a) Purpura 
hemorrhagica; (b) roaring; (c) empyema of the sinuses of the 
head; (d) immobility from encapsuled brain abscess; (e) tabes 
mesenterica from chronic, adhesive peritonitis, leading to 
thickening of the mesentery, bowel adhesions, emaciation and 
finally cachexia. 

Treatment. — The principal factors in treating strangles are : 
(a) Isolation and care of the sick and subsequent thorough 
disinfection of the premises ; (b) proper hygiene (light, cleanli- 
ness and ventilation), and (c) the early opening of the ab- 
scesses. The patient should be placed in a roomy, light, airy 
box stall. In mild, sunny weather the patient may be turned 
out during the day. The feed box should be kept clean and 
free from accumulations of nasal discharge. The diet should 
consist of easily digested laxative foods (steamed oats, bran 
mashes, grass, carrots). If the patient refuses all food and 
is growing weak, milk, eggs and alcohol may be used. Some- 
times appetite may be stimulated by feeding small quantities 
of oats over which a little brown sugar has been strewn. 
Sucklings should be assisted at nursing, or in case they cannot 
suck (dysphagia), rectal feeding may be employed. Friction 
to the skin through good grooming is helpful. The nostrils 
may be cleaned with cotton, soaked in a 1.5 per cent, creolin 
solution and the canthi of the eyes kept free from pus accu- 
mulation. 

The abscesses should be encouraged to " ripen" by hot 
fomentations. Blisters (biniodid of mercury in lard, one to 



STRANGLES— CORYZA CONTAGIOSA EQUORUM 365 

four) are occasionally dangerous (dyspnea from increased 
swellings). As soon as the first signs of fluctuation appear, 
the abscesses should be opened, using a long incision, and the 
pus discharged. Once evacuated, and thorough drainage 
provided, too much after-treatment with the syringe is con- 
tra-indicated, as it prolongs healing. If, following the open- 
ing of the abscess, the temperature does not sink in the next 
twelve to twenty-four hours, further abscess formation may 
be looked for. If the swelling does not decrease in size, a 
second abscess is forming in the neighborhood. It is some- 
times possible to thwart its development by puncture with a 
finger or blunt instrument from the original abscess cavity. 
Abscesses in the subparotid region may be opened through 
Viborg's triangle. Pharyngeal abscesses are frequently deep- 
lying and can be reached only with a long, blunt instrument, 
such as the metal nozzle of a syringe. (See Surgery.) 

If dyspnea develops and becomes serious, tracheotomy 
should be performed. In profuse nasal discharge, steaming 
the head is useful. It should not be repeated too often, as it 
tends to produce atony of the mucous membranes of the 
nose and throat. The use of intralaryngeal and intratracheal 
injections (subnitrate of bismuth 5 per cent., tannin 2 per 
cent., Lugol's solution) are rarely necessary and sometimes 
dangerous. 

Internal medication plays a secondary part in the treat- 
ment of strangles. Drug treatment should be expectative 
and contingent upon the arising symptoms. The fever and 
heart are treated as in influenza (see this) . When the bowels 
are inactive small doses of artificial Carlsbad salts may be 
used (tablespoonful in feed). The catarrhal symptoms are 
treated as in catarrh of the air passages (see this) . 

Of late antistreptococcus serum is much used in strangles. 
It is claimed it lessens the nasal discharge, shortens the term 
of fever and prevents complications arising. Further sub- 
stantiation is desirable. 

Protective Inoculation. Serum Therapy. — As an 
attack of strangles usually produces immunity lasting for 
several years, attempts have been made to artificially immu- 
nize horses against the disease. 



366 DISEASES LOCALIZED IN CERTAIN ORGANS 

(a) Active Immunity. — Some good results have apparently 
been obtained by the use of bacterial vaccines in the preven- 
tion of strangles. For this purpose either dead or attenuated 
cultures of the Streptococcus equi have been employed. The 
use of the non-attenuated culture proved too dangerous. 

(b) Passive Immunity. — A polyvalent antistreptococcus 
serum has been employed, but as the Streptococcus equi is 
different from the Streptococcus pyogenes of man and animals 
it proved ineffectual either as a preventative or cure. A 
serum made from the cultures of the Streptococcus equi is 
said to have given better results. Acting therapeutically it 
diminished the nasal discharge, lowered the fever and stopped 
in some instances further development of the abscess. It is 
employed in doses of 10 c.c. 

MALIGNANT HEAD CATARRH OF THE OX. 

Gangrenous Coryza. Coryza Gangrenosa Bovum. 

Definition. — A non-contagious, acute infectious disease of 
the ox and buffalo, characterized by an inflammation of the 
mucous membranes of the head, leading to ulceration and the 
formation of pseudomembranes. The eye is also involved 
and nervous symptoms are present. 

Occurrence. — Usually occurs sporadically or as a stable 
miasma, especially in insanitary barns. The disease is rela- 
tively rare in the United States, but outbreaks have been 
reported from Ohio, New York, New Jersey and Minnesota. 
The disease is common in Europe. 

Etiology. — The specific organism is yet unknown. It is 
assumed that the virus which causes the disease reduces the 
resistance of the body tissues, especially mucous membranes, 
through toxins which it eliminates. The ulcers and pseudo- 
membranes may be due to secondary invading bacteria. 

Natural Infection. — The mode of infection is not yet under- 
stood. Probably the germs harbored in damp, dirty stables 
contaminate the food and water and thus be taken in through 
the digestive tract. Occasionally the disease appears among 
cattle in pasture, but usually only when the available drinking 
water is foul. 



MALIGNANT HEAD CATARRH OF THE OX 367 

The disease has not been transmitted by inoculation. It 
does not spread by contact. In some stables, as noted, it 
exists for years, appearing each spring and fall and in time 
causing considerable losses. 

Young, fat cattle (one- to three-year-old steers) are most 
often attacked. One attack does not produce immunity 
against subsequent ones. A given animal may suffer suc- 
cessive attacks a few weeks or months apart. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is from twelve hours 
to two days. 

The disease usually begins with symptoms of fever (104° to 
107° F.). The surface temperature is unevenly distributed, 
the poll of the head hot, the muzzle hot and dry. The fever 
drops on the second or third day. Before death it becomes 
subnormal. 

Nervous Symptoms. — The head is held low or rests on the 
manger. In some patients on the second or third day there 
is marked stupor, the animal lying on the ground unconscious. 

In other patients there is excitement, the animal bellowing, 
rearing, and plunging. Locomotion is difficult, the gait un- 
certain and staggering. Twitching of the muscles of the neck, 
shoulders and body may occur. Epileptiform spasms have 
been observed. The excitability of the patient is increased by 
such external influences as bright sunlight, sudden noise, etc. 

The eyes on the first or second day show conjunctivitis, 
which may extend to the cornea causing keratitis. There is 
photophobia and profuse lacrimation. The cornea becomes 
turbid or "milky," the clouding beginning at the periphery. 
Iritis and cyclitis are also observed, the anterior chamber 
being filled with yellow exudate. The episcleral bloodvessels 
are congested. From the fibrinous iritis the animal is often 
blind. 

The Respiratory Tract. — There is at first a thick, viscid, 
purulent, later more fibrinous nasal discharge, mixed with 
blood, which finally becomes discolored and fetid. The 
croupous masses forming in the larynx narrow its lumen, 
cause noisy dyspnea, and at times distressing cough. The 
sinuses of the head may become filled with exudate and the 
horn core inflamed, leading to the horns becoming loose. In 



368 DISEASES LOCALIZED IN CERTAIN ORGANS 

thrashing about the patient often knocks off the loosened 
horn. 

The Digestive Tract. — The buccal mucosa is early red- 
dened. Later in the course of the disease the gums, lips and 
hard palate become eroded. Croupous membranes are some- 
times noted on the mucous surface of the lips, cheeks and 
palate. The animals drool and fetid croupous masses are occa- 
sionally ejected from the mouth. There may be dysphagia. 
The appetite is impaired. Water is drunk in small quan- 
tities. The bowels are constipated during the height of the 
fever, the feces tar-like. In the latter stages there is diarrhea. 
The feces are said to contain fibrinous masses and blood in 
some instances. 

Skin. — An eczematous eruption (papulovesicular) has been 
observed. The skin of the head, especially at the nostrils 
is most apt to be involved, although the coronets may be 
elected. 

Udder. — In cows the milk secretion stops. Rarely a coin- 
cidental mastitis occurs. 

If the patient live several days it emaciates and becomes 
anemic. 

Course. — The course is acute. The initial symptoms usu- 
ally last one day. In three or four days the disease is fully 
developed. The patients rapidly emaciate and generally be- 
come unconscious and die in from four to eight days. In 
some cases this disease may be prolonged three or four weeks 
and end in recovery. 

Prognosis. — Mortality 60 to 90 per cent. Marked nervous 
symptoms, high fever after the second day (pneumonia) are 
bad signs. Those animals which do recover are left with 
such sequelse as blindness, chronic nasal or gastro-intestinal 
catarrh. 

Treatment. — This is largely symptomatic, (a) Cold appli- 
cations to head and base of horns; (b) injecting out the nos- 
trils with antiseptics and removing manually the membran- 
ous obstructions to breathing; (c) tracheotomy in apnea 
(do not be in a hurry to remove tube) j 1 (d) trephining the 

1 Of very questionable value in practice, 



STOMATITIS OF CALVES— CALF DIPHTHERIA 369 

frontal sinuses or even sawing off the horns and irrigating the 
cavities through the opening; (e) alcohol may be used in 
great mental depression or strong coffee added to the drinking 
water; (/) fever may be reduced by antipyretics ; (g) consti- 
pation and diarrhea as in bowel catarrh. 

The poll ax is indicated in severe cases (long convales- 
cence; blindness, etc.). 

NECROTIC STOMATITIS OF CALVES. CALF DIPHTHERIA. 

Definition. — Calf diphtheria is a contagio-infectious disease 
of suckling calves in the course of which there develop on the 
buccal mucous membrane croupous-diphtheritic patches and 
ulcers. It is usually attended by a general toxemia which 
leads to death. 

Occurrence. — The disease is very common in Europe, and 
serious outbreaks have been reported in the United States, 
particularly in the western States, Colorado, Wyoming, South 
Dakota, Iowa and southwestern Texas. 

Etiology. — The cause of the disease is the Bacillus necro- 
phorus of Bang, a thin, long rod which forms in tissue and in 
artificial media slender, undulated filaments. 

Natural Infection. — Probably comes from the calves getting 
into the mouth soiled straw or litter which is contaminated 
with necrosis bacilli. Healthy calves in contact with dis- 
eased ones are infected by licking the sick or picking up matter 
contaminated with the nasal and mouth discharges of the 
affected. The disease is very easily transmitted, spreading 
from calf to calf. 

Very young calves (three to five days old) become infected. 

Necropsy. — On postmortem in the mucous membranes of 
the mouth and throat are found areas of dirty gray or brown 
color, irregular in form and well circumscribed. They are 
frequently found on the cheeks and borders of the tongue, 
but may also involve the upper respiratory passages, and 
occasionally the intestinal canal, or even the region of the 
coronet. In some cases large surfaces of the mucous mem- 
brane are covered with a yellowish-gray, friable, fetid, cheesy 
mass. Sometimes the lungs are infected, in which purulent 
24 



370 DISEASES LOCALIZED IN CERTAIN ORGANS 

or caseous foci develop. Occasionally there may be pleuritis. 
In some instances the small intestines are catarrhally inflamed 
and dotted here and there with small, pea-sized, grayish- 
yellow caseous deposits. The spleen is not enlarged, though 
the lymph glands are swollen. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is from three to five 
days. As noted, very young calves are most often attacked. 
The first symptoms observed are languor, disinclination to 
suck, and slight increase in temperature. There soon de- 
velops a drooling from the mouth and slight swelling of the 
cheeks. The examination of the mouth, which is painful to 
the patient and therefore resisted, reveals that the mucous 
membrane of the cheeks, tongue, hard palate, and fauces 
show areas of redness and erosion. These areas represent 
patches of yellow or grayish-yellow pseudomembranes or 
ulcers. The patches are from the size of a five-cent piece 
up to a silver dollar and quite irregular in form. The necrotic 
mass is very adherent to the underlying tissue and can be 
removed only with difficulty. It may be an inch in thickness 
and involve the muscle or even bone. 

The disease frequently involves the nasal cavities, producing 
a yellowish or greenish-yellow, sticky discharge which adheres 
closely to the border of the nostrils. Occasionally the nose is 
obstructed by accumulations of exudate, causing difficulty 
in breathing. If the larynx and trachea are involved there 
will be cough and dyspnea. Besides these local symptoms 
there are those of general toxemia, such as loss of appetite, 
extreme languor, weakness and temperature ranging from 
105° to 107° F. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is not difficult, and depends upon 
the fact that in this disease well marked, thick, necrotic areas 
and deep ulcers occur upon the mucous membranes in the 
regions noted. In no other disease of the calf are these 
deposits so marked. 

Course. — The disease, if left to itself, in most cases leads to 
death in five to eight days. Some individuals may live as 
long as three weeks and then die of pneumonia. Cases which 
recover do so very gradually, convalescence lasting for weeks. 
The healing of the ulcers is an extremely slow process. 



LUNG PLAGUE OF CATTLE 371 

Prognosis. — Calves affected with necrotic stomatitis, if left 
to themselves, usually die, or if they recover, remain per- 
manently stunted in growth. On the other hand, if proper 
treatment is administered early, most of them recover, 
healing requiring about two weeks. 

Treatment.— The treatment consists in thorough cleansing 
and disinfection of the mouth cavity. Twice daily the mouth 
should be syringed out with a 2 per cent, creolin solution in 
warm water. The patches of necrosis may be scraped off or 
curetted away in so far as this is feasible. After the sores are 
irrigated it is recommended to cover them with a paste made 
of one part salicylic acid and ten parts glycerin applied with 
a stick or brush. Lugol's solution of iodin is also recom- 
mended. The calf may be allowed to suck its mother, or if a 
weanling, should be fed liquid food, best milk. Plenty of 
cool water should be kept within reach. 

Prevention. — The sick calves should be separated from the 
healthy ones. The mouths of exposed calves should be 
examined once daily for lesions of necrotic stomatitis. Dis- 
infection of the stalls, pens, buckets, etc., should be made, 
using a 3 per cent, creolin solution. 

LUNG PLAGUE OF CATTLE. CONTAGIOUS PLEURO- 
PNEUMONIA OF CATTLE. 

Definition. — Lung plague of the ox is a specific contagio- 
infectious pleuropneumonia which may assume an acute, 
subacute or chronic form and is due to a filterable although 
visible virus. 

Occurrence. — The disease does not exist in the United States 
at the present time. In 1843 an outbreak occurred in New 
York which had its origin in an infected cow imported from 
England. In the years following the disease spread through- 
out the country, getting as far west as the Mississippi River 
and south to Virginia. It was not until 1892 that it was 
finally entirely stamped out. 

Lung plague is now well under control in Europe, although 
still quite prevalent in Spain. Throughout Asia and Africa 
the disease is general. iUistralia, New Zealand and Tasmania 



372 DISEASES LOCALIZED IN CERTAIN ORGANS 

are infected. In the Philippine Islands the disease is wide- 
spread. 

Etiology. — Lung plague is due to a very minute micro- 
organism which passes through coarse porcelain filters but 
may be seen under the microscope when magnified over 1500 
diameters. It is the smallest visible microorganism as yet 
known, being almost ultramicroscopic. The organism has 
been grown in artificial media. The virus is found in the 
pleural exudate, diseased lung and in nasal discharge. The 
blood rarely is infectious. 

Natural Infection. — Probably through the respiratory tract. 
Experiments to produce typical lung plague in susceptible 
animals by inhalation or feeding have not been successful. 

The disease spreads usually by direct contact with infected 
animals. Infected and emptied stables in which within a 
year sick cattle had been kept are common sources of infec- 
tion. Where cattle are crowded together in a barn the dis- 
ease spreads most rapidly. On the other hand, however, a 
rapid spread among cattle on pasture has been frequently 
noted. 

Very commonly a supposed recovered ox with an encap- 
suled lung focus is the infecting agent. So long as the se- 
questered centre in the lung is completely encysted, no virus 
will be thrown off, but once a communication is established 
with a bronchus giving the virus exit the patient becomes a 
source of danger to healthy cattle. The virus may remain 
virulent for two or three years in a lung sequestrum of an 
apparently healthy ox. 

The disease is more prevalent in stable-fed than among 
pastured animals. It affects all breeds, although some indi- 
viduals possess natural immunity. 

Necropsy. — As a rule only one lung (left) is involved. Usu- 
ally a large area is hepatized. On cross-section a clear, yellow 
fluid, which quickly coagulates flows over the cut surface. 
The interlobular connective tissue is greatly thickened, form- 
ing yellow, gelatinous strands one-half inch or more in 
thickness, which divide the lung tissue into islands of varied 
color. Characteristic of the lung lesions are the different 
degrees of inflammation which appear at the same, time fresh 



LUNG PLAGUE OF CATTLE 373 

areas of congestion lying beside those showing red or gray 
hepatization or even necrosis. As a result the cut surface 
presents a distinctly variegated, marbled appearance very 
characteristic of the disease. The bloodvessels are distended 
and thrombosed. The corresponding lymph glands are 
swollen and edematous. 

In chronic cases the proliferated interlobular connective 
tissue is almost white in color and very firm. The portions of 
the lung they surround are necrotic and sometimes calcified. 
In such cases a thick connective-tissue capsule may inclose 
areas from the size of a walnut to a grapefruit — so-called 
sequesters. A zone of reactive inflammation surrounds the 
capsule. The pleura shows serofibrinous pleuritis which can 
involve the pericardium. Rarely there is serofibrinous peri- 
tonitis, especially in the region of the diaphragm and liver. 
In calves arthritis of individual joints and a gelatinous infil- 
tration of the subcutis (dewlap, chest) may exist. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is from one to four 
weeks. In many instances it appears shorter, the early symp- 
toms (temperature) being obscure and passing unobserved. 
In very hot weather the attack is often more sudden and 
severe than in the cold season. 

The symptoms are very varied. From a clinical standpoint 
usually two stages can be recognized. During the first stage 
(so-called occult stage) a peculiar short, weak, painful cough 
is heard, especially after drinking or eating or when driven up 
or out of the barn. The patients are languid, show capricious 
appetite, suppressed rumination and stand with back arched, 
head down and ears pendent. Driving the animal induces 
dyspnea. The temperature is usually somewhat elevated (one 
or two degrees) . This condition may exist from two to four 
weeks, and lead to recovery or the symptoms may become 
more pronounced. Second stage: The temperature ascends 
to 104° to 108° F v and severe dyspnea develops, the mouth is 
held open, tongue protrudes, and each expiration is accom- 
panied by a loud moan. The patient usually stands with its 
neck extended and elbows turned out ; if it lies down it does so on 
the affected side. There is usually complete loss of appetite, 
suppressed rumination and cessation of milk flow. There is 



374 DISEASES LOCALIZED IN CERTAIN ORGANS 

often a mucopurulent nasal discharge stained with blood. 
The feces are dark and dry; later a profuse fetid diarrhea 
develops. On percussion (which is painful) over the affected 
side an extensive area of dulness may be detected. On 
auscultation bronchial tones and rales and occasionally fric- 
tional sounds are heard. If the consolidated area is not near 
the lung surface, however, percussion and auscultation are 
negative. The abnormal respirations are best heard after 
exercising the patient. 

In fatal cases the patient rapidly emaciates, becomes hide- 
bound, anemic, cachectic and dies of exhaustion in three to 
six weeks. 

If recovery occur, it generally takes place gradually and is 
not always complete, the patient remaining unthrifty for a 
long time. 

Diagnosis. — Intra vitam a positive diagnosis is very diffi- 
cult or impossible. Usually only a careful necropsy will 
establish beyond doubt the existence of the disorder. A clear 
history of the prevalence of the disease in the country or 
community, the insidious onset, the fact that only a portion 
of the cattle are attacked at the same time and the clinical 
evidence of pneumonia are very suggestive if not convincing. 

Lung plague can be confused with: 

(a) Hemorrhagic Septicemia (Pectoral Form) . — While this 
disease usually has a sudden onset, is much more acute 
and attacks larger numbers of animals simultaneously, some 
acute cases of lung plague may greatly resemble it not only 
clinically but on necropsy. In doubtful cases only a bac- 
teriological examination (finding bipolar bacillus; animal 
inoculation) will determine. 

(b) Tuberculosis (Pulmonary) may be confused with a 
chronic case of lung plague. The absence of continued fever, 
lack of pleural symptoms, the even more chronic course of 
tuberculosis and the results of the tuberculin test usually 
suffice to differentiate between the two. However, lung 
plague and tuberculosis may occur concomitantly in the same 
animal. 

(c) Pneumomycosis (Aspergillosis of the Lungs) is rare in 
cattle, affects most often birds. The development is very 



LUNG PLAGUE OF CATTLE 375 

slow; little fever. On necropsy the presence of Aspergillus 
fumigatus in the bronchi and consolidated lung tissue is 
conclusive. 

(d) Verminous Bronchitis. — Affects mainly calves. Cough- 
ing prominent. Parasites or eggs occur in the ejections. 

Course. — The course of the disease is varied. Many cases 
recover during the early stage and after only a few days' ill- 
ness. In others recovery is slow and often imperfect, pul- 
monary sequestra remaining. Such an animal, as noted, is a 
dangerous source of infection. 

The course is generally more stormy in young, well-nour- 
ished patients, although calves are quite resistant. The 
mortality is usually from 60 to 70 per cent. Not over 20 to 
30 per cent, fully recover. A number remain chronically 
affected, but may fatten. 

Depending on circumstances, the disease may persist on a 
given premises for years. This is particularly true where 
only those showing clinical symptoms are disposed of, no 
thorough disinfection practised and later new cattle brought 
in to replenish the herd. 

Treatment. — Palliative measures are rarely successful and 
generally lead to the further spread of the disease. To wipe 
out lung plague all sick and exposed animals should be slaugh- 
tered and the premises they occupied (barns, sheds, etc.) 
thoroughly disinfected. Once this drastic method is enforced 
the disease is soon entirely eradicated. In the Uniteed States 
and in other countries where it no longer exists, no cattle 
should be imported from an infected country without passing 
through a strict (ninety-day) quarantine. 



CHAPTER IV. 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES INVOLVING PRINCIPALLY 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

TETANUS. LOCKJAW. 

Definition. — Tetanus is an acute infectious disease due to an 
anaerobic microorganism which produces in the body a toxic 
product resembling strychnin in its physiological action. 
The disease is characterized by tonic spasms of the muscles. 
The mind of the patient remains undisturbed. 

Occurrence. — While tetanus has a wide general distribution 
it is confined to infected districts. Where the soil has become 
contaminated with the germ of the disease it is of common 
occurrence. For this reason it is more prevalent in the 
tropics than in northern climes ; in some parts of the country, 
commoner than in others. Horses, swine and sheep are more 
often attacked than other domestic animals. The disease is 
more prevalent in. the spring and fall than during other sea- 
sons. Since the use of antiseptics has become more general, 
tetanus is not as frequent as formerly. 

Etiology. — The disease is caused by the Bacillus tetani, an 
anaerobic rod-shaped germ, usually carrying a spore at one 
end. The germ occurs in the spore form in earth, putrifying 
fluids and manure. In infected districts tetanus spores are 
normal inhabitants of the intestines of ruminants. 

Natural Infection. — Infection takes place through a fresh 
wound into which the spores of the specific bacillus have 
gained entrance. Obviously wounds so situated as to become 
contaminated with soil or manure are most apt to become 
infected. Therefore wounds in the feet, scrotum, umbilical 
cord, compound fractures of the limb bones, tooth cuts and 
eye wounds are most dangerous in this regard. As the original 
wound may be very small and heal by first intention, it cannot 



TETAN US— LOCK J A W 377 

always be found. This led to the former belief in " idiopathic 
tetanus." In cattle tetanus most commonly follows parturi- 
tion where rough manipulations have been made to relieve 
dystocia. Newborn animals may become infected through 
the navel. The practice of docking lambs leads to tetanus, 
the infection entering the fresh tail stump. Limited enzootics 
of tetanus have occurred among horses, swine and sheep where 
castration without sufficient precaution was practised in 
infected districts. 

Necropsy. — There are no constant lesions found on post- 
mortem. The brain and cord present nothing characteristic. 
The condition of the wound through which the infection 
entered is very varied. Usually it is not granulating well 
and there is little pus discharge. The nerves are often bruised, 
congested and swollen. If the infection was through the 
umbilicus (tetanus neonatorum) the navel may be inflamed. 

One attack of tetanus does not produce immunity. A 
given animal may suffer more than once from the disease. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is usually from one to 
two weeks. A minimum period of twenty-four hours has 
been noted in very young animals and exceptionally in older 
ones. As a rule the disease reaches full development in one 
or two days. During the prodromal stage the patient is 
stiff, does not care to move and shows loss of appetite or at 
least slow mastication. The ears are held erect. If the head 
of the patient is elevated a protrusion of the nictating mem- 
brane over the eye occurs, a symptom most pronounced in 
the horse. Tetanus may be partial, involving only parts of 
the body (partial tetanus) or it may be general, affecting the 
whole body (universal tetanus) . In some cases the muscular 
spasms are confined to the head and neck; in others the hind 
parts; in still others the whole body is involved. 

Horse. — When the symptoms are fully developed and the 
reflexes stimulated by excitement the patient assumes a 
characteristic attitude : The legs are spread and stiff, the neck 
and head are extended and the tail elevated. The ears stand 
erect approaching each other, the eyes retracted and in part 
covered by the nictating membrane. The pupils are dilated, 
the nostrils distended and the nasal wings trumpeted. The 



378 DISEASES INVOLVING NERVOUS SYSTEM 

H 

mouth is held shut with the commissures drawn upwardly. 
From a spasmodic contraction of the masseter muscles it may 
be impossible to open the mouth more than a fraction of an 
inch (trismus). Due to a contraction of the constrictors of 
the pharynx dysphagia and ptyalism are present. While in 
most cases the back is held straight and rigid, occasionally it 
is arched downwardly (opisthotonos) or still more rarely 
curved laterally (pleurothotonos) . Locomotion is difficult, 
the limbs being advanced stiffly and the feet barely raised 
from the ground. It is almost impossible to back the horse. 
The muscles are tense and hard, individual muscles standing 
out prominently. Twitching of the muscles is a symptom 
often noted. These symptoms may subside temporarily pro- 
vided the patient is in no way excited. However, any sudden 
noise, a flash of bright light or an unaccustomed sight will 
cause the spasms to return. If the patient is struck with the 
hand a paroxysm of muscular contraction passes over the 
body. The mind of the patient is clear, although the face 
shows anxiety and a peculiar rigid stare. Sometimes in 
stallions the penis is erected. The pulse is small, the artery 
hard. In severe cases the heart beat is rapid and often 
palpitating. The respirations are increased three to five 
times their normal frequency. As the blood is charged with 
C0 2 a cyanosis of the mucous membranes appears. The lungs 
are commonly congested and edematous so that rales are 
heard on auscultation. In rare instances the respirations are 
noisy or pronounced roaring occurs. As swallowing is diffi- 
cult saliva, food or drugs may enter the windpipe, causing 
foreign-body pneumonia and gangrene of the lungs. The 
temperature is affected only in severe cases and usually just 
before death or if some complication has set in (pneumonia, 
septicemia). One or two days before death it may reach 
110° F. As has been observed in other diseases accompanied 
by severe muscular spasms the temperature remains high for 
several hours after death (postmortem temperature). The 
appetite usually remains good, although mastication is 
labored. Food is often retained in the mouth or coughed out 
into the manger. From a decomposition of the unswallowed 
food and saliva the expirium becomes fetid. A regurgitation 



TETANUS— LOCKJAW 379 

of liquids and solids through the nostrils is not uncommon. 
The peristalsis is suppressed and defecation is difficult. 
Strangury is occasionally present; the specific gravity of the 
urine is high. 

In tetanus the patient usually stands during the course of 
the disease. If it should fall to the ground it rises with great 
effort or must be assisted to its feet. In the last stages the 
patient usually falls to the ground where after showing violent 
muscular spasms it dies in a few hours. 

In local tetanus the muscular symptoms are confined to 
the muscles nearest the point of infection and the spasms are 
not severe. Generalized tetanus is usually preceded by local 
tetanus. 

Ox. — In cattle tetanus most often follows obstetrical opera- 
tions. The symptoms are usually not so marked as in the 
horse and are sometimes quite vague. The reflexes are not 
much increased, the animal appearing stupified rather than 
excited. From a contraction of the paunch muscles bloating 
commonly occurs. From the vulva there is often a putrid 
discharge. Emprosthotonos has been observed. 

Sheep. — In lambs following umbilical infection or as the 
result of castration and docking tetanus may assume an 
enzootic form. The symptoms in sheep are much like those 
in the horse. Opisthotonos is usually well developed. 

Swine. — In swine the disease commonly follows castration 
or ringing. There is usually marked trismus. 

Diagnosis. — The characteristic tonic muscular spasms, the 
normal mind and the absence of temperature speak , for 
tetanus. 

From strychnin poisoning the disease is distinguished by 
the fact that the symptoms of this poisoning are much more 
acute and between the paroxysm there is no rigidity. Tris- 
mus is further rarely present in strychnin poisoning except in 
the last stages. 

The disease might be confused with an acute muscular 
rheumatism. However, this is not apt to occur if the symp- 
toms are carefully noted. There is no prolapse of the nictat- 
ing membrane and the muscles are tender on palpation in 
rheumatism. 



380 DISEASES INVOLVING NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Tetanic symptoms have been noted in cases of intestinal 
irritation in the horse due to the presence of ascarides. The 
symptoms, however, are very mild and the case usually 
yields to proper treatment, such as giving a vermifuge. 

Tetany is a rare condition in animals. It may occur when 
a torn or. severed sensory nerve heals in the lips of the wound 
(castration) . 

Course. — The course is very varied. Some cases die in two 
or three days, while others may live two or three weeks and 
the disease terminate fatally. Death usually occurs, how- 
ever, in three to ten days after the appearance of the first 
symptoms. Cases which terminate fatally usually grow 
steadily worse from the beginning. There are, however, 
exceptions. Sometimes the patient dies suddenly from res- 
piratory arrest or the aspiration of food (oats) when recovery 
seems probable. The course in local tetanus is benign pro- 
vided it is not complicated with trismus. 

Where the termination is favorable, the contractions of the 
muscles become less after the second week. Convalescence 
usually lasts four to six weeks. 

Prognosis. — The mortality in tetanus is 55 to 90 per cent. 
The disease is not so fatal in the ox as in other animals. In 
sheep the mortality is 95 to 100 per cent. 

The earlier the disease appears after infection and the more 
rapidly and severely the symptoms develop, the more fatal 
the attack. Fever is a bad sign. Where the patient is 
unable to eat on account of trismus the termination is usually 
fatal. Severe dyspnea may lead to hypostatic congestion of 
the lungs and death. On the other hand, if the case develop 
gradually, after a long period of incubation, and the symp- 
toms of generalized tetanus are not severe, no fever is present 
and the appetite retained the outlook is more favorable. 
Even in these cases, however, the prognosis should be made 
with caution, as fatal complications may occur at any time. 

Treatment. — Hygienic. — The patient should be removed to 
a quiet, darkened stall. There is no objection to a mare 
being allowed her foal or a horse its team mate. Idle curi- 
osity seekers should be kept away. The animal should be 
given soft food, and water kept within constant reach. Slings 



TETANUS— LOCKJAW 381 

should be used only when absolutely necessary to keep the 
animal on its feet and where the temperament of the patient 
permits of their use. If there is difficulty in defecation the 
feces may be removed from the rectum. If the bladder is 
distended it should be emptied best by careful pressure. 
While theoretically the primary wound should *be # curetted 
and disinfected, in the horse this is often a difficult pro- 
cedure. Furthermore, it is not always possible to find the 
wound. 

Medical. — Internal medication is of little avail. On ac- 
count of the danger of drenching, drugs should be given as far 
as possible with the food and water. To keep the bowels 
open salts may be administered. Opiates such as morphin, 
chloral hydrate and the bromids afford only temporary relief. 
Inhalations of chloroform and ether just before a meal un- 
doubtedly assist mastication by temporarily relieving the 
trismus. 

Subcutaneous and intramuscular injections of phenol solu- 
tions are highly recommended by some authorities. Sub- 
cutaneously 1 ounce of a 2 per cent, solution or 2 drams of a 
10 per cent, solution of phenol in glycerin may be admini- 
stered twice daily. One dram of a 5 per cent, solution may be 
injected into the muscles of the neck and shoulders. The 
injection may be repeated once every three hours for the first 
thirty-six hours. 

Tetanus Antitoxin. — The administration of tetanus anti- 
toxin, while it confers temporary immunity against the dis- 
ease, has not proven valuable as a curative agent. It is most 
affective when used early and in subacute cases. As a cura- 
tive agent 3000 to 20,000 units should be given. This amount 
may be split into several doses : For instance, 20 c.c. may be 
used for the first dose followed by 15 to 20 c.c. in five to ten 
hours. 

Prevention. — Tetanus may be prevented by thoroughly dis- 
infecting all fresh wounds and by the use of small doses of 
antitoxin. In infected districts the use of antitoxin to pro- 
duce immunity prior to important surgical operations, treat- 
ment of fresh .wounds (especially punctured feet in horses, 
castrations, etc.) has proved extremely valuable. In coal 



382 DISEASES INVOLVING NERVOUS SYSTEM 

mines, where general tetanus commonly follows foot injuries, 
and in the Panama Zone, a badly infected district, good 
results have been obtained from antitoxin used as a preven- 
tative. The immunity produced lasts about one month. 

RABIES. LYSSA. HYDROPHOBIA. CANINE MADNESS. 

Definition. — Rabies is a contagious, generally fatal, in- 
fectious disease, transmitted by the bite of an infected animal 
and characterized by delirium, nervous excitement, and 
finally paralysis. Its incubation period is very varied and no 
characteristic macroscopic lesions are found postmortem. 

Occurrence. — The disease is most common (80 per cent.) in 
dogs which, when infected, inoculate by biting other animals 
(horses, cattle, sheep, and swine) or human beings, thus 
spreading the disease. Rabies occurs in nearly every coun- 
try in the world. Australia is said to be free from it, and 
since the introduction of the last muzzling law in 1895 the 
disease has disappeared in Great Britain. Within the past 
ten years rabies has become wide-spread in the United 
States. No State is free from it, but accurate statistics as 
to its pre valency are not available. From 1900 to 1910 
it was reported in 73 cities, causing the death of 230 
persons. 

Etiology. — Rabies is due to an organism which in certain 
stages at least is ultramicroscopic and passes through bacterial 
filters. The virus is found in the tissues and fluids of the in- 
fected body, especially in the central nervous system. It also 
occurs in the saliva, pancreatic juice and milk, occasionally 
in the aqueous humor and has been found to exist in the blood. 
The muscles seem free. In 1903 the Italian investigator, Negri, 
discovered in the protoplasm of certain nerve cells of rabid 
animals small, stainable bodies which are now called "Negri 
bodies." They were demonstrated in 95 to 98 per cent, of the 
cases of rabies examined, and are rarely found in old, healthy 
dogs (immunes) . It is probable that these bodies are protozoa 
which in some stages of their development are small enough 
to pass through bacterial filters. Of this, however, there is as 
yet no scientific proof available. 



RABIES— L YSSA—H Y DROP HOB I A 383 

Natural Infection. — Rabies is essentially a disease due to the 
bite of a rabid animal the saliva of which contains virulent 
virus. Such saliva coming in contact with any fresh wound 
could produce infection. The saliva of an animal may be 
virulent as early as eight days before the termination of the 
period of incubation and before symptoms of the disease 
develop. The virus, as in tetanus, extends along the nerves 
to the brain and cord. It may also be carried by the blood- 
and lymph vessels. The danger of the bite of a rabid animal 
depends upon the virulency of the saliva, character of the 
wound and the number of lymph vessels and nerves injured. 
Bites inflicted by carnivorous animals are more dangerous 
than those produced by herbivora on account of the form of 
the teeth and the character of the wound they produce. 
Wounds near the brain and cord are especially apt to be fol- 
lowed by infection. In horses, bites in the lips, nose, and 
cheeks are therefore dangerous. The length and thickness of 
the hair or wool covering the part bitten are important factors, 
a heavy, thick growth catching most of the saliva and pre- 
venting its entering the wound. Recently shorn sheep are 
thus much more susceptible than when wearing the full wool 
coat. The infected wound usually heals as any other wound, 
quite often by first intention. Infection through the intact 
skin has not been demonstrated. Not over 30 to 50 per cent, 
of the animals bitten by rabid animals take the disease. 

Necropsy. — There are no characteristic lesions of rabies. 
In herbivorous animals fairly constant are the empty stom- 
ach, congested lungs, and larynx. The other organs are 
either normal or show secondary lesions not directly due to 
rabies. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is very varied. Gen- 
erally the disease breaks out two to eight weeks after inocula- 
tion. Much longer periods have been observed. An incuba- 
tion period of one or two years is probable. The length of 
the period is determined by the virulency of the virus, the 
character and location of the wound, and the age of the ani- 
mal. Young animals are more susceptible than adult or aged 
ones. In general the symptoms of rabies are much the same 
in all animals. They are modified only by the natural pecu- 



384 DISEASES INVOLVING NERVOUS SYSTEM 

liarities of the different species. In practically all animals 
are observed psychic, sensory, and motor nervous disturb- 
ances, the absence of fever, lost or perverted appetite, rapid 
emaciation, and fatal termination. The psychic changes are 
shown by hyperesthesia and the tendency to attack other 
animals or even persons by biting, kicking, or horning and the 
continued bellowing in cattle; the sensory, by the licking, 
gnawing, tearing, or rubbing the part of the body which was 
bitten (itching of part, neuralgia) and the motor, by hyper- 
kinetic symptoms, such as clonic spasms or twitching of 
muscle groups, or, on the other hand, by akinetic phenomena, 
as sudden dropping, paresis or paralysis, change in voice, etc. 
The perverted appetite is recognized by the fact that rabid 
patients often eat their own dung and drink their own urine 
in preference to normal food. In animals two clinical types 
of rabies have long been recognized: (a) the furious form, 
and (6) the paralytic (dumb) form. They are more pro- 
nounced in the dog than in other animals. Between the two 
types, however, intermediate forms are noted, so that clinic- 
ally many cases occur which do not clearly belong to either 
type. The dumb form may suddenly change to the furious, 
and vice versa. In dogs, further, three stages of the disease 
are fairly well presented, i. e., the stage of melancholia, the 
stage of mania, and the stage of paralysis. They are best 
observed in typical cases of the furious form of the disease. 
In the other domesticated animals they are rarely well de- 
fined. Rabid animals rapidly emaciate and almost always 
die within ten days after the first symptoms appear. 

Horse. — The patient is first noticed to rub or gnaw the 
healed bitten wounds (lip, nose, forelimb). At first the 
friction thus applied is moderate, but later in the disease deep 
excoriations and severe injury to the part rubbed or gnawed 
are induced. The skin of the metacarpus may be torn, 
exposing the underlying tendons and bones. Naturally swell- 
ing of the part results. The patient is usually quite excit- 
able, restless, pawing, alternately lying down and getting 
up, symptoms not infrequently mistaken for colic. Biting 
into the manger, stall partitions, etc., is a common occurrence. 
The lips, gums, and even the teeth are thus injured, as the 



RABIES— LYSSA— HYDROPHOBIA 385 

patient disregards caution in its destructive delirium. If a 
stick be presented, the horse snaps at it or seizes it with his 
teeth. A water pail may be seized and smashed. In some 
cases slight dysphagia is an early symptom, saliva drooling 
from the mouth; in drinking, regurgitation of water through 
the nose follows. In occasional patients marked symptoms of 
fury are noted, the animal rearing wildly into the manger, and 
with mouth and hoof seemingly trying to tear the stable down. 
Blankets, feed boxes, studding, in fact anything which may 
come in the way are torn or splintered. Other horses or even 
men are attacked during the paroxysm. In stallions and 
mares increased sexual desire is noted. The appetite is per- 
verted, the horse ingesting dung and urine. A change of 
voice also occurs in horses, but is not as marked a symptom as 
in dogs and cattle. About the second or third day paralytic 
symptoms appear, the patient remains down, and dies in 
convulsions or coma. In some cases the paralytic symptoms 
are not preceded by a stage of fury, the course of the disease 
resembling the dumb form of rabies of dogs. 

Ox. — Rabid cattle are restless, excited, and particularly 
aggressive toward dogs and fowls, which animals they pursue 
with avidity. Even inanimate objects, if in motion (a rolling 
pumpkin), are chased by them dog fashion. In milch cows 
milk secretion stops. Not infrequently they attempt to bite, 
seizing the coat sleeve of a person standing near. The patients 
have an anxious, mischievious expression, and quite fre- 
quently a peculiar movement of the muzzle, like that observed 
in the healthy rabbit. Sometimes violent contractions of the 
abdominal muscles, as if to defecate, are seen. Anything 
which attracts their attention they rapidly approach and try 
to gore and climb upon with their, forefeet. A common 
symptom is a sudden loss of muscular coordination or power 
which causes the animal to drop to the earth as if " pulled 
down" by a rifle shot. They remain down but a moment and 
spring to their feet again. The appetite is vitiated, dung and 
feces being licked up in preference to good food. Water is 
not refused, but it may be swallowed with difficulty. Con- 
tinued bellowing is a prominent symptom, the sound of the 
voice becoming gradually hoarser and fainter. The patients 
25 



386 DISEASES INVOLVING NERVOUS SYSTEM 

from day to day grow weaker and more emaciated and finally 
get down and are unable to rise. 

Death usually occurs about the seventh to ninth day. In 
some outbreaks the disease takes a fatal termination in three 
to six days. 

As in the horse, paralytic symptoms (dysphagia, bloating, 
constipation, paraplegia) may appear without being preceded 
by a furious stage. The patients get up from a recumbent 
position with difficulty, walk with a staggering gait, show 
marked ptyalism, bellow continuously; food and water are 
regurgitated through the nose and mouth; finally they lie 
prone on the ground, unable to rise, show spasms of the 
diaphragm and other muscles, and, the temperature dropping 
below normal, die in five to seven days. 

Sheep. — In general, the symptoms in sheep are similar to 
those in cattle, although, as a rule, the patients are not as 
aggressive and destructive in their tendencies. A very com- 
mon symptom is increased sexual desire, the affected sheep 
mounting their fellows. Occasionally aggressive symptoms 
are observed, the otherwise shy animal attacking by butting 
the other sheep, dogs, or even persons who enter the pasture. 
Occasionally they try to bite. The disease usually lasts three 
to five days, and ends in paralysis and death. 

Swine. — In hogs the symptoms are quite similar to those 
observed in dogs. The patients are very restless, keep run- 
ning around the pen, and squealing in a hoarse voice. They 
bury themselves in the straw and gnaw the parts where bitten. 
Sudden noises arouse them, and occasionally they will attack 
other animals and man. There is usually profuse ptyalism. 
Water they attempt to drink, but usually cannot swallow. 
Quite commonly young pigs will come together head on and 
push each other around the inclosure. In a few instances the 
disease resembles the dumb form in dogs, and the patients 
show no aggressive symptoms but are simply paralyzed, un- 
able to swallow, show changed voice, and die in two to five 
days. 

Diagnosis. — Where there is history of the animal having 
been bitten and the symptoms of the different stages well 
developed a diagnosis intra vitam is usually not difficult. In 



RABIES— -LYSSA— HYDROPHOBIA 387 

the furious form of the disease the aggressive and destructive 
tendencies of the patient are very suggestive. However, 
these symptoms are not always present. Occasionally the 
diagnosis is extremely difficult and cannot be made during the 
life of the animal. Generally the psychic, sensory, and motor 
disturbances, the fatal termination, and the negative post- 
mortem are indicative. As a rule, however, a positive diag- 
nosis can be made only by microscopic examination or experi- 
mental inoculation. In cases of doubt it is best to confine 
the animal for a day or so for observation, during which time 
there usually develop sufficient symptoms to make the diag- 
nosis highly probable. 

The microscopic examination, which is highly valuable, 
consists in the examination of properly prepared and stained 
brain tissue, particularly of the hippocampus, medulla ob- 
longata, and cerebellum. In practically 98 per cent, of the 
cases of rabies which died or were killed in the advanced 
stages of the disease, peculiar cells, the so-called Negri bodies, 
are found. The presence of the Negri bodies indicates rabies 
while their absence tends to disprove its existence. 

Diagnostic Inoculations.— An emulsion is usually obtained 
from the medulla oblongata of an animal which died or was 
killed because rabies was suspected. This is injected sub- 
cutaneously or subdurally into rabbits or sometimes pups. 
Intra-ocular and intramuscular inoculations have also given 
successful results. Usually in from two to three weeks after 
the injection the experimental animal dies of typical rabies 
provided the material used came from a rabid animal. 

Course and Prognosis. — The disease usually lasts four to 
seven days. It is extremely rare for it to exceed ten days in 
any animal. While a few recoveries have occurred in cases 
produced by artificial inoculation, authentic records of re- 
covery from natural infection are wanting. The disease is 
generally fatal. 

Treatment.— Once the disease is fully developed no treat- 
ment is of any avail. To prevent rabies the fresh bitten 
wound should be thoroughly disinfected with a 3 per cent, 
carbolic acid or a 1 per cent, bichlorid of mercury solution. 
If the wound is older and granulating the actual cautery or 



388 DISEASES INVOLVING NERVOUS SYSTEM 

caustics, such as strong hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, 
strong ammonia, etc., are indicated. Subcutaneous injections 
into the tissues adjacent to the wound may be helpful. 
Bichlorid (1 to 10,000), or 1 per cent, carbolic acid, may be 
used. The prompt application of a ligature above the bite, 
if applicable, is often life-saving. Generally speaking, how- 
ever, the prevention of rabies by the treatment of the bitten 
wound is successful only where it has been applied promptly 
and within the first fifteen minutes after the injury is made. 

The preventive treatment as commonly practised in man 
consists in subcutaneously injecting the patient daily for a 
period of fifteen to twenty-one days with an attenuated virus, 
the virulency of which is increased with each successive 
injection. This is commonly spoken of as the Pasteur treat- 
ment. It is occasionally applied in veterinary practice, al- 
though on account of its cost only in very valuable animals. 
Where promptly applied, and the attenuated virus good, 
excellent results are recorded. 

Prophylaxis. — Rabies may be absolutely prevented by doing 
two things: (a) Inforcing a dog tax and keeping the public 
thoroughfares free from stray dogs; (b) by muzzling all dogs 
which are allowed to run at large. That these measures are 
only successful when applied to an extensive territory is ob- 
vious. Applying them only to a small district will not give 
beneficial results, as a rabid dog during the prodromal stage 
of the disease may wander far and wide, biting any live stock 
with which it may come in contact. 



CHAPTER V. 
CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 

TUBERCULOSIS. CONSUMPTION. 

Definition.— Tuberculosis is a chronic, contagio-infectious 
disease due to the Bacillus tuberculosis and characterized by 
the formation in the different organs of the body, of small 
nodules, nodes, or larger irregular areas which tend to case- 
ate, undergo fibroid degeneration, or calcify. 

Occurrence. — Tuberculosis occurs in all domesticated ani- 
mals, although it is very rare in sheep. In fact all warm- 
blooded animals and many cold-blooded ones (fish) are sus- 
ceptible to it. In man one-seventh of the race die of it 
(150,000 annually in the United States alone). In animals 
cattle, swine, and fowls are most commonly infected. The 
prevalency of bovine tuberculosis, as in other contagious dis- 
eases, depends upon the opportunity for infection and spread. 
It is therefore most common in large herds confined in 
stables and less frequent in small herds living in the open. 
In the western ranges of the United States and in the great 
open grazing districts of other countries (steppes of Russia, 
South American pampas) tuberculosis is comparatively rare. 
On the other hand, in the more densely populated parts of this 
country (Atlantic seaboard, Middle West, neighborhood of 
large cities) it is very prevalent. In practice a greater per- 
centage of tuberculosis will be found in dairies and in herds 
of full-blood cattle maintained and sold for breeding pur- 
poses ("stud or seed cattle"). In both instances the oppor- 
tunity for infection is great (indiscriminate purchase of new, 
non-tuberculin-tested animals) and the close contact in which 
cattle of these classes are kept still further favors the spread of 
this contagion. While every State in the Union is infected, 
in some districts it is much less common than in others, and 
even in badly infected districts whole herds of cattle are found 



390 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

free from the disease. Modern transportation facilities are 
important agents in spreading the disease among cattle. The 
illegitimate use of tuberculin by unscrupulous persons is a 
further factor in the spread of bovine tuberculosis. Cattle 
reacting to the test are frequently sold as healthy to unsus- 
pecting buyers, who thus introduce the disease into their 
herds. Tuberculosis of animals is not yet as prevalent in 
the United States as in other countries. It is constantly 
increasing, however, especially in States where no adequate 
measures have been inaugurated to combat it. Swine are 
infected from tuberculous cattle in two ways, viz ? : (a) By 
being fed milk containing tubercle bacilli and (b) by feeding 
on the excrements or offal of tuberculous cattle. 

The prevalency of animal tuberculosis can be estimated 
with approximate accuracy from abattoir statistics and the 
results of tuberculin testing. In Germany nearly 21 per cent, 
of the cattle and 3 per cent, of the swine killed for food have 
been found affected. The tuberculin test showed over 50 
per cent, reacting. Fully 25 per cent, of the cattle of Ger- 
many are infected, and in France over 10 per cent. In the 
United States 1 per cent, of the cattle are found tuberculous 
on slaughter and 2.5 per cent, of the hogs. Results from tu- 
berculin tests on 400,000 head of cattle gave 10 per cent, 
reacting. It is very probable that 1 per cent, of the beef 
cattle and 10 per cent, of the dairy and stud herds of this 
country are tuberculous. 

Etiology. — The cause of tuberculosis is the Bacillus tuber- 
culosis of Koch. Three types of this bacillus are fairly well 
defined, viz.: (a) Typus humanus, (h) typus bovinus, and 
(c) typus gallinaceus. (See Bacteriology.) 

Natural Infection. — A tuberculous animal can spread the dis- 
ease only by throwing off tubercle bacilli. Such are spoken of 
as cases of "open tuberculosis." On the other hand, where 
the animal is tuberculous but no tubercle bacilli are passing 
from it, the case is one of " closed tuberculosis." Bacilli may 
not pass continuously from "open" cases. "Closed" cases 
may at any time change to "open" ones. 

Modes of Infection. — Tubercle bacilli are taken into the 
body: (a) via digestive tract with contaminated food and 



T UBERCULOSIS—CONS UMP TION 391 

water; (b) via respiratory tract by the inhalation of tuber- 
cular spray ejected by coughing or lowing infected cattle; 
■(c) via genital organs during coitus; (d) via udder through 
teat canal; (e) via wounds (very rare; may follow castra- 
tion), and (/) congenital tuberculosis has been noted only in 
isolated cases. 

(a) Calves and swine are commonly infected through milk 
from creameries, especially skim milk obtained by centrifugal 
separation. The ingestion of cattle excrement by swine is a 
pregnant source of infection, especially in America, where the 
practice of allowing hogs to follow cattle is much in vogue. 
The feeding of the offal of slaughter houses to swine is likewise 
dangerous, as tuberculous lungs, livers, lymph glands, gastro- 
intestinal contents, etc., are consumed. 

The bronchial exudate of tuberculous cattle, coughed up or 
otherwise raised from the lungs, may mix with the saliva, 
and thus tubercle bacilli are carried to feed or watering troughs, 
bedding, etc. As most of the exudate is swallowed by the 
patient (not expectorated as in man), the feces become pol- 
luted, scattering bacilli wherever dropped. Susceptible ani- 
mals (hogs and cattle) eating or drinking substances contami- 
nated by such discharges become infected. The same would 
apply to any other secretion or excretion containing tubercle 
bacilli (vaginal discharge, urine, etc.). 

(6) Infection through the respiratory organs comes from 
the inhalation of either (a) globlets of bronchial exudate, 
mixed with mucus and saliva, which are coughed out or 
otherwise forcibly ejected from the nose and mouth of tuber- 
culous cattle, or (b) of tubercle bacilli which have become 
partially dried and are adhering to dust particles floating in 
the air. In the former case cattle immediately next to an 
"open" case of tuberculosis acquire the infection by close 
contact, and in the latter, which is far less frequent, by 
breathing in the dried bacilli which contaminate the in- 
spired air. 

(c) Infection by coitus may occur provided the genital 
organs of the bull (penis, prostate, testes) or cow (vagina, 
uterus) are diseased. This form of infection is relatively 
rare, but more common than generally supposed. 



392 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

(d) Through the teat canals tubercle bacilli from contami- 
nated bedding, manure, etc., may reach the udder, inducing a 
primary tubercular mastitis. A general infection from this 
source is seldom noted. 

(e) While infection through skin wounds is not infrequent 
in man, in animals it rarely occurs. In swine and cattle it 
has been observed to follow the use of raw milk applied to 
fresh castration wounds. Accidental wounds of the prepuce 
in bulls and udder in cows, in contact with contaminated 
litter, bedding, etc., can form ports of entry for infection. 

(/) Congenital (intra-uterine infection) is rare. It may 
occur if tuberculosis of the uterus is present and in advanced 
generalized tuberculosis (uterus intact). 

Conceptional or germinal tuberculosis (infected sperm or 
ova) has not been proved. 

Modes of Elimination. — In cases of "open" tuberculosis 
the bacilli may be eliminated from the body through the fol- 
lowing channels: (a) By coughing out or otherwise ejecting 
infected bronchial exudate through the nose and mouth; 
(b) with the feces contaminated with swallowed bronchial 
slime or from the discharge of tubercular ulcers in the mucous 
membrane of the digestive tract; (c) 1 the milk will contain 
tubercle bacilli if the udder is infected, or when advanced, 
generalized tuberculosis is present, and the udder seems 
intact; (d) the urine contains tubercle bacilli when the renal 
pelvis or parenchyma is tuberculous or in tuberculosis of the 
reproductive organs (vagina, uterus, prostate, epididymis), 
the contaminated exudate or secretions afterward mixing with 
the urine. 

Tuberculosis is essentially a stable disease in that the 
opportunity for infection and spread is greatest where ven- 
tilation, light, and cleanliness are inadequately provided. 
Further, in stables the animals are in closer contact with one 
another than in the open. However, tuberculosis is observed 
in cattle which are never housed and hogs are frequently 
infected when out of doors following tuberculous cattle. As in 
other contagio-infectious diseases, darkness, dirt, and foul air 

1 The milk of apparently healthy cows which react to the tuberculin test 
only occasionally contains tubercle bacilli. 



T UBERC ULOSIS—CONS UMP TION 393 

are conducive to the propagation of tuberculosis, while the 
opposite conditions tend to inhibit its development. For 
these reasons life in the open is a useful preventive and cura- 
tive measure, especially in the earlier stages of the disease. 
In advanced cases it helps relatively little. (See Treatment.) 

Susceptibility. — As noted, tuberculosis is the most widely 
prevalent disease of cattle and is very common in swine and 
fowls. On the other hand, horses, dogs, and cats are seldom 
infected, and in sheep the disease is extremely rare. A high 
resistance offered to tubercular infection may be racial or 
individual. It is believed that certain breeds of cattle, for 
instance, are less predisposed than others. The semiwild 
strains from the Russian steppes and the native cattle of 
Japan seem more resistant than those of more refined origin. 
The long-horn of Texas and the West was apparently an im- 
mune. However, the opportunity for original infection and 
subsequent spread of the disease has been much more difficult 
among these cattle than it is in the more thoroughly domesti- 
cated European breeds from which our better American cattle 
sprang. Among the tamer breeds (Jerseys, Shorthorns, etc.) 
no racial differences in resistance have been noted. The 
manner of caring for and the use to which the animal is put 
probably has as much to do with the susceptibility to tuber- 
culosis as any racial peculiarity. Selection in breeding opera- 
tions with only precocity in development, or an unnaturally 
great milk production in view, to the exclusion of other factors 
(good constitution, etc.), will produce a race of low resistance 
to any infection. If tuberculosis happens to be the disease 
to which this race is exposed, infection is the more apt to 
take place. 

Individual immunity against tuberculosis is commonly 
observed. In notoriously infected herds a few animals will 
sometimes remain healthy, although surrounded by every 
opportunity to take the disease. Whether this immunity is 
acquired or congenital is difficult to state. Accurate experi- 
ments to determine whether or not it may be handed down to 
future generations are wanting. 

Necropsy. — The lesions of tuberculosis may appear in any 
organ in the body with the exception of the teeth. The loca- 



394 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

tion of the lesion may depend upon the kind of animal, mode 
of infection, and whether the disease is primary (local), or 
secondary (generalized). In the ox, tuberculosis is usually 
confined to the lungs, serous membranes, and lymph glands. 
In swine the digestive tract with corresponding lymph glands 
is most frequently involved. In the horse the lymph glands 
(mesenteric, retroperitoneal) are generally elected. How- 
ever, exceptions to this rule are frequently noted; in gener- 
alized (spread via blood) tuberculosis the nodules may occur 
in any organ, even being found in muscle. The influence of 
the mode of infection is difficult to determine, since it has 
been proved that subcutaneous inoculations in calves (even 
at the tail tip) with tubercle bacilli were followed by pul- 
monary lesions. 

The most characteristic lesion in tuberculosis is the 
tubercle which has undergone caseous degeneration. The 
lesion may vary in size from a small millet seed (miliary 
tubercle) to a cheesy mass larger than a human head, due to 
the confluence of numbers of smaller foci. While the indi- 
vidual tubercle is at first of a translucent, gray appearance, 
later from the degeneration, which begins in its centre, it 
assumes a yellow color. The formation of nodules tending to 
caseate, particularly if corresponding lymph glands are simi- 
larly affected, is characteristic of tuberculosis. 

Ox. — As noted, the lungs, serous membranes, lymph glands, 
especially the bronchial and mediastinal, are most commonly 
involved. 

Lungs. — In the lungs nodules or nodes of varied size, of 
firm to fluctuating consistency, with usually well-defined out- 
line, invade the tissue. On cut surface the dry, yellow, 
friable caseation surrounded by a thick capsule is found, or, 
on the other hand, the contents are soft, puriform, thick- 
fluid, covered by a thin connective-tissue layer. The color is 
grayish yellow to pronounced yellow. The size will vary 
from that of a millet seed to a clenched fist, or, by confluence, 
a whole lobe of lung tissue may be found changed to a case- 
ous mass. In old cases calcification of the tubercle occurs, 
whereby it grits under the knife when cut through. Usually 
in the neighborhood of a larger node small tubercles are pres- 



T UBERC ULOSIS—CONS UMP TION 395 

ent. While the lung tissue between the tubercles is often 
normal, sometimes the intervening alveoli are filled with 
tubercular exudate and the interstitial tissue thickened. By 
the confluence of smaller nodes great tubercular masses form. 
Sometimes the center of the mass is hollow (caverns), but more 
often filled with friable, dry caseation or moist pus. Between 
some of the cavities and bronchi a communication forms 
through which a secondary infection with pus cocci or 
saprophytic bacteria takes place, in some instances changing 
the character of the caseous or puriform mass to that of 
ichor, causing the color to become grayish and giving it a 
fetid odor. Tuberculosis of the superficial parts of the lung 
often extends to the pleura, leading usually to circumscribed 
pleuritic adhesions. Very rarely a diffuse serofibrinous 
pleuritis develops. 

In calves pulmonary tuberculosis assumes the form of a 
catarrhal pneumonia. On cut surface the hepatized area of 
the lung is strewn with small, round, reddish-gray to yellow 
areas, which, by confluence, are enlarged to caseous centers 
the size of a hickory-nut or larger. Bronchitis almost always 
attends pulmonary tuberculosis, therefore lesions in the 
bronchi are noted on postmortem. The signs of bronchial 
catarrh with bronchiectasis are common findings, the dilated 
air tubes filled with mucus or cheesy masses. At times the 
bronchial mucous membrane is ulcerous. The trachea is less 
liable to ulceration than the larynx. In the latter organ 
tumor-like connective-tissue growths occur, sometimes almost 
entirely occluding the lumen. On section the neoplasm is 
found to contain small gray or yellowish tubercles. 

Serous Membrane. — The pleura is most frequently involved. 
In the earliest stages reddish-gray, small, granules develop 
surrounded by masses of connective tissue. On section of 
these masses areas of caseation from a millet seed to a pea in 
size are revealed. By confluence and simultaneous connec- 
tive-tissue proliferation, round nodes or cauliflower-like excres- 
cences protrude from the serous membrane. The protuber- 
ances may have a broad base or be pediculated. While in 
consistency they are at first soft, later they become firm to 
hard. The tubercles are imbedded in the growth of con- 



396 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

nective tissue and new-formed bloodvessels, where they case- 
ate and calcify. By confluence great polypoid masses several 
centimeters thick occur, appearing not unlike a bunch of 
grapes, hence the old name "grape disease." Not infre- 
quently these nodular protuberances will involve the peri- 
cardium and epicardium, leading to adhesion between them. 
The endocardium and valves of the heart are rarely involved. 

Lymph Glands. — The lymph glands corresponding to the 
affected organ are almost always tuberculous. Not infre- 
quently only the lymph glands are diseased. This is espe- 
cially true in young animals in the earlier stages of the disease, 
and in older individuals condemned by the tuberculin test. 
In some cases the lymph glands on the surface of the body, 
particularly the submaxillary, subauricular, prescapular, and 
precrural are involved. In other infections the supramam- 
mary glands are elected. The tuberculous lymph gland is 
often enlarged to many times its normal size and presents a 
nodular surface. On section it will be found to contain 
tubercles which appear either as round or irregular-shaped 
radiating areas of caseation, sometimes surrounded by a 
capsule of connective tissue, and often calcified. In pul- 
monary tuberculosis especially the mediastinal and peribron- 
chial lymph glands are diseased. In the digestive tract the 
suprapharyngeal, mesenteric, and portal lymph glands are 
elected. The glands may attain the size of a double clenched 
fist, and in some instances interfere with the functions of 
organs with which they come in contact. Partial occlusion 
of the esophagus when mediastinal lymph glands are involved 
is often observed. The mucous membrane of the digestive 
tract may show nodules or ulcers. As a rule the borders of 
the tubercular ulcer are thickened and the base caseous. 
They extend into the submucosa or muscularis. Usually the 
environing mucous membrane is thickened and catarrhally 
inflamed. 

Liver. — Besides tuberculosis of the peritoneum covering the 
liver, in the parenchyma of the organ small tubercles or 
larger, dry, caseous or softer, puriform areas are noted. As 
a rule the nodes and abscesses are surrounded by connective- 
tissue capsules. In some instances from connective-tissue 



TUBERCULOSIS— CONSUMPTION 397 

proliferation the liver may attain several times its normal 
weight. 

Spleen. — Tuberculosis of the spleen is usually confined to 
a few small tubercles scattered through the parenchyma of 
the organ. The spleen is usually affected in young cattle 
only. 

Kidneys. — A tubercular nephritis is common in old cattle. 
In the parenchyma of the kidney caseous tubercles are noted 
surrounded by connective-tissue capsules. By confluence 
larger nodes form which may proliferate into the pelvis of the 
kidney. The ureters, bladder, and urethra may be involved. 

Genital Organs. — In male animals the epididymis and the 
testes are most frequently elected; in the female the uterus 
and uterine tubes. In the uterus round tubercles may be 
palpated in the early stages, but later, due to connective- 
tissue proliferation, the walls becoming greatly thickened 
and rigid, isolated tubercles may not be felt. Tubercles, case- 
ous or calcified, of grayish-white color, are found on section. 
In some instances superficial tubercles may lead to ulceration 
of the uterine mucosa. 

Udder. — Tuberculosis of the udder appears as caseous or 
calcified nodes in the parenchyma of the organ, usually in the 
neighborhood of which smaller foci are present. As a rule 
only the hindquarters are affected. In some cases an enor- 
mous enlargement of the tuberculous quarter or quarters 
occurs, while in others, on the contrary, an atrophy is noted. 
In the wall of the milk ducts, milk cistern and even teat 
canals, small tubercles find their seat, the lumen being filled 
with a cheesv detritus and sometimes a turbid vellowish-green 
fluid. 

In recent cases of embolic infection the lobules of the 
quarters concerned are swollen, and on section are found 
strewn with grayish tubercles, the intervening connective 
tissue showing numerous caseous areas from the size of a 
millet seed to that of a pea. The supramammary lymph 
glands are in all cases tubercular. 

Tuberculosis of the central nervous system, bone, joints 
and muscle is relatively rare in cattle. It is seldom that the 
skin tendons, penis, prostate or eye form loci of infection, 



398 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Acute Miliary Tuberculosis. — This form of tuberculosis is 
usually seen to accompany a primary lesion from which it 
sprang by way of thrombosis or direct eruption into a blood- 
vessel. Not infrequently, in the same lung, along the course 
of a bronchus is found a large, irregular-shaped caseous or 
calcified primary focus, and throughout the rest of the 
lung tissue, a number of small, round tubercles all of about 
the same size and alike caseous (secondary foci). These 
tubercles are usually evenly distributed, and each surrounded 
by a red zone. In the liver, spleen and kidneys similar lesions 
may be present. The corresponding lymph glands in miliary 
tuberculosis are always acutely swollen and their cortical 
substance abnormally reddened. 

Symptoms. — Fully 90 per cent, of the cases of tuberculosis 
in animals present no clinical symptoms. As long as the 
disease is local and does not seriously involve the gastro- 
intestinal tract, or if there is no general intoxication of the 
organism with the toxins of secondary infection, a remarkable 
destruction of parenchymatous organs may follow and the 
patient appear healthy. In generalized tuberculosis or, as 
noted, if the bowels are much involved, or sapremia is attend- 
ing, symptoms develop. The character of the symptoms is, 
however, so indefinite that they cannot be relied upon with 
any degree of certainty. Any of them may be caused by 
other diseases and none are pathognomonic of tubercu- 
losis. 

Fever. — The temperature of the body in tuberculosis is 
usually not disturbed until the late stages of the disease, when 
fever of an intermittent or remittent type sets in. Sometimes 
the temperature is higher in the morning than in the evening. 
As a rule, following a period of fever, there may be several 
weeks of normal temperature. Only in the last stages is the 
fever of a continuous type. As the symptoms of tubercu- 
losis vary in the different domesticated animals, each kind of 
animal will be considered separately as follows : 

Ox. — The period of incubation after artificial infection in 
bovine tuberculosis is two weeks or more. Following natural 
infection it is probably much longer. As a rule months or 
years elapse before appreciable symptoms appear. In cattle 



T UBERC ULOSIS—CONS UMP TION 399 

tuberculosis inducing clinical symptoms affects the following 
organs or tracts: 

(a) Lungs. — Cough is often a noticeable symptom. The 
cough is usually short, dry, and infrequent, occurring at 
first early in the morning when the cattle are driven up to 
feed or milk. Sometimes moving the animals, a cold drink 
of water, or a chilly draught of air (opening the stable door) 
induces it. In an occasional case the cough is paroxysmal. 
During the act of coughing a fine spray is ejected from the 
nose and mouth, and following it a viscid bronchial exudate 
is swallowed. Sometimes a portion of this exudate is retained 
for a time in the mouth and pharynx, from whence it may 
be removed with the hand. (See Diagnosis.) 

Dyspnea is usually not a prominent symptom when the 
patient is at rest. After brisk motion, however, the respira- 
tions become abnormally rapid and labored. 

Percussion. — As the tubercles in the lung are generally 
surrounded by air-containing alveoli, percussion is usually 
negative. Only when large areas (at least 10 cm. broad) 
of solidification are superficially located and the thoracic 
wall relatively thin is dulness noted. 

Auscultation is very often negative. Especially after 
exercise in some cases, bronchial breathing and rales are 
heard. The rales are either dry or moist, depending upon 
whether the exudate is tough- viscid or more fluid in char- 
acter. Dry rales, as a rule, predominate and are heard over 
the whole field of auscultation. 

If the pleura is also involved (tubercular pleuritis, pearl 
disease) the patient may show pain on pressure over the 
ribs and percussion induces coughing. Friction sounds on 
auscultation can rarely be distinguished. Generally the 
clinical symptoms of tubercular pleurisy are too vague to 
be of diagnostic value. 

Appetite. — In the earlier stages the appetite is retained, 
but toward the end (when the animal becomes emaciated) 
it is lost. 

Loss of Flesh. — In the later stages of pulmonary tuber- 
culosis the animal begins to lose flesh notwithstanding good 
food and care. The hair coat lacks luster, becomes erect and 



400 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

the skin feels leather-like and thick. In time emaciation 
is in evidence, the patient very anemic and, toward the end 
(usually after months), cachectic. 

(b) Larynx. — In tubercular laryngitis palpation of the 
larynx readily causes coughing. In some cases tuberculous 
growths develop in the lumen of the larynx, inducing great 
dyspnea and even suffocation. As swallowing becomes 
difficult the animals eat little, and hence fall off in flesh. 

(c) Lymph Glands. — The lymph glands may be primarily 
diseased or in association with other organs (lungs, udder, 
bowel, etc.), which are also tuberculous. The following 
superficial lymph glands are most commonly elected: sub- 
maxillary, subauricular, prescapular, precrural and supra- 
mammary. The glands enlarge to form tumor-like growths, 
plainly visible on the surface of the body. They may attain 
the size of a large potato, are round or oviform, little sensitive, 
firm, nodular, not readily movable and the overlying skin 
not adherent. In calves they may show fluctuation and when 
incised discharge a thick, white pus. 

Internally, tuberculous lymph glands may interfere with 
the functions of organs with which they are in contact. The 
mediastinal glands, if much enlarged, may depress the dorsal 
wall of the esophagus, constricting its lumen, and thus 
indirectly lead to intermittent bloating. The enlargement 
of the parapharyngeal causes dysphagia. 

(d) Udder. — Usually secondary. In the latter stages there 
appear in the hindquarters firm, painless, not well-defined 
nodular enlargements which may develop into hard turnor- 
like growths as large as a human head. In some cases the 
whole quarter or quarters may be swollen to enormous size 
and be almost of the consistency of stone. Smaller enlarge- 
ments (lumps) are best palpated after the udder is milked 
out. The supramammary lymph glands are increased in 
size to sometimes that of a clenched fist. In not a few cases 
only these glands seem tuberculous, the udder appearing intact. 

The milk is usually normal in appearance for a long time 
after the udder is involved. In the late stage, however, it 
becomes mixed with tubercular exudate, is watery and of 
greenish color, or contains white flocculse. 



T UBERC ULOSIS—CONS U MPT ION 401 

(e) Bowels. — The only tangible clinical symptom of 
intestinal tuberculosis is a persistent and incurable diarrhea. 
The patient usually soon emaciates, becomes cachectic, and 
dies. 

(/) Genital Organs. — Peritoneum. — A remarkable develop- 
ment of peritoneal tuberculosis can be present and the 
patient not only appear in health but gain in flesh. In cows 
tuberculosis of the peritoneal covering of the ovaries may 
induce nymphomania, the animal showing almost continuous 
estrum. Later the patients fall off in flesh. 

(g) Uterus. — The most constant symptom is a vaginal 
discharge of a mucopurulent, yellowish, ichoric, fetid char- 
acter. Rectal examination may reveal the greatly thickened, 
rigid wall of the body and horns of the uterus. Failure to 
conceive (perpetual bulling) and abortion may be attending 
symptoms. In the later stages sexual desire is lost. 

(h) Vagina. — Hickory-nut size, yellowish nodules occur 
in the vaginal walls often near the vulva. 

(i) Testes. — There appears a non-painful, firm swelling 
of the epididymis, later the testes become enlarged, forming 
a swelling of considerable size. Hydrocele is a common 
attendant and perforation with pus discharge is not 
uncommon. 

Swine. — As a rule there are no clinical symptoms of 
diagnostic value. The disease may involve: 

(a) The lymph glands, especially those of the throat, 
neck and prescapular regions (submaxillary, pharyngeal, 
prepectoral, etc.). In pronounced cases a firm, nodular, 
non-sensitive swelling of the throat and neck appears which 
may be extensive enough to interfere with mastication and 
the movements of the head. Occasionally fluctuation and 
perforation with the discharge of thick pus or cheesy masses 
occur in some part of the swelling. A tendency for fistula? 
to remain is noted. 

(b) Lungs. — The symptoms are much like those of the 
pulmonary form of hog cholera and consist in cough, dyspnea, 
emaciation, anemia, cachexia and death in about one month. 

(c) Bowels. — A primary intestinal tuberculosis in pigs 

follows feeding with infected skim milk or slaughter-house 

26 



402 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

offal. The symptoms are similar to those observed in cholera 
but the course is generally longer, the animal wasting 
gradually. It is sometimes possible to palpate through the 
abdominal walls firm, nodular enlargements which are 
either tuberculous lymph glands or adherent loops of diseased 
intestine. Death follows months of decline. 

id) Bones and Joints. — The vertebrae and ribs and the 
joints of the legs are most commonly attacked. Rarely 
are symptoms noted in bone tuberculosis. In tubercular 
arthritis the affected joint is chronically swollen but presents 
no symptoms of acute inflammation. Lameness is usually 
present. 

Horse, — Tuberculosis is rare in the horse and the symp- 
toms are usually too vague to be more than suggestive. 
Briefly, they are those of chronic cough, dyspnea, early 
fatigue when at work and intermittent nasal discharge 
(sometimes bloody). Percussion and auscultation are gener- 
ally negative. Finally the animal becomes emaciated, anemic 
and cachectic. In colts (fed infected cow's milk) a tuber- 
culosis of the bowels and mesenteric glands has been observed. 
The symptoms are not characteristic. The colt remains 
stunted in growth, pot-bellied, may show periodical attacks 
of colic, and constipation alternating with diarrhea. On 
rectal examination enlarged lymph glands may be palpated. 

In adult horses polyuria has been observed in some cases. 
As in the ox enlargement of the superficial lymph glands 
occurs. Tubercular ulceration of the nasal mucous mem- 
branes is very exceptional. The temperature in equine 
tuberculosis is much as in the ox — intermittent or remittent. 
Morning exacerbations and evening remissions in the course 
of the fever have also been observed. 

Diagnosis. — As noted, in the majority of cases tuberculosis 
is a local disease in animals and presents no clinical symptoms. 
A physical examination of the tuberculous patient will there- 
fore reveal nothing to indicate the presence of the disease. 
Even in those cases of advanced tuberculosis the symptoms 
are too vague and indefinite to be depended upon with any 
degree of certainty. A positive diagnosis of tuberculosis, 
therefore, from the clinical symptoms alone is not tenable, 



T UBERCULOSIS—CONS UMP TION 403 

Other aids to diagnosis must be employed, the principal ones 
of which are the following: 

1. The Tuberculin Reaction. — Tuberculin may be applied 
in several different ways. The most important methods of 
application given in the order of practical importance are 
the following: (a) The subcutaneous; (b) conjunctival, and 
(c) dermal. 

(a) The subcutaneous application of tuberculin, which 
consists in injecting the tuberculin in proper dosage into the 
loose connective tissue under the skin, is as yet the best 
known and most reliable method. The reaction following is 
general in that it induces in tuberculous animals (best in 
cattle) a febrile temperature which usually begins in six 
to eight hours, reaches its acme in twelve to twenty hours, 
and lasts for twenty-four to forty hours after the injection. 
(For detail of technic, interpretation, etc., see Malkmus' 
Clinical Diagnostics.) Tuberculin properly used is a very 
reliable diagnostic agent. In 98 per cent, of the cases a 
positive reaction indicates the presence of a tubercular 
lesion which can be determined on necropsy. Tuberculous 
animals may not react to the test under the following 
conditions : 

(1) When the disease is in the period of incubation 
(Moore). 

(2) When the progress of the disease is arrested. 

(3) In advanced, generalized cases and the condition of 
the patient is bad. 

(4) When the animal has been just previously (within four 
weeks) injected with tuberculin. 

In the last two instances cited (3 and 4), by increasing 
the dose of tuberculin, a reaction is apt to follow. 

(b) The conjunctival application consists in instilling into 
the conjunctival sac a few drops of tuberculin (undiluted). 
In tuberculous cattle in six to twenty-four hours symptoms of 
conjunctivitis develop (congestion, swelling, lacrimosis) with 
the accumulation of a yellow, flocculent exudate in the inner 
canthus of the eye. The reaction may last two to four days. 
It is spoken of as positive when the conjunctivitis is pro- 
nounced and the exudate purulent, Milder reaction (simple 



404 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

catarrhal conjunctivitis) may occur in healthy individuals, 
especially where full strength tuberculin has been used. 
Further, in healthy cattle the application of this test at spaced 
intervals will often induce an apparent reaction which is 
very confusing. Sometimes tuberculous cattle will not react. 
Negative results, therefore, are not decisive. 

(c) The cutaneous applications of tuberculin consists in 
either rubbing the tuberculin (a) into the intact (shaved 
and cleaned) skin (dermic), (b) painting it upon the scarified 
skin (endermic) or (c) injecting it into the substance of the 
skin (intradermic), probably best into one of the skin folds 
extending from the tail-root (tail elevated) on each side 
downward to the anus. In tuberculous cattle the positive 
reaction, modified somewhat by the method of application, 
consists in an inflammatory (edematous) swelling which 
usually appears within twenty-four hours and often lasts 
for two or three days. When the skin has been scarified, 
small vesicles sometimes appear. While the dermal appli- 
cation of tuberculin may furnish valuable contributory 
evidence in detecting tuberculosis, it is often not conclusive 
enough to be relied on. Negative results are not always 
indicative of the absence of tuberculosis. However, this 
method of applying tuberculin is still in the experimental 
stage. 

2. Microscopic Determination of Tubercle Bacilli in the Secre- 
tions and Excretions or in Tissue from the Suspected Patient. — 
While in man the examination of sputum for tubercle bacilli 
is commonly practised, in animals, which do not spit, the 
method is not so feasible. However, milk, manure, urine, 
and tissue (portion of abscess walls, udder, superficial lymph 
glands, tuberculous growths, etc.), may be subjected to 
microscopic examination for tubercle bacilli. Of late bron- 
chial slime collected with special devices from the gullet 
(gullet dipper) and trachea (tracheotomy tube, wire carrying 
sterile gauze at end) has been used. In cattle this method 
has proved of service in detecting open cases. In this con- 
nection it should be borne in mind that there are many 
other bacilli which are "acid-fast," and so closely resemble 
the tubercle bacilli morphologically and in staining properties 



T UBERC ULOSIS—CONS UMP TION 405 

that a differentiation with the microscope is impossible. 
(See Bacteriology.) 

3. Diagnostic Inoculations. — The inoculation of experi- 
mental animals is always advisable where the microscopic 
examination has been indecisive. The guinea pig is usually 
chosen, as it is very susceptible to tuberculosis. In practice 
negative results in this animal speak for the absence of 
tubercle bacilli in the suspected material injected. Positive 
results are recognized by the formation of a true tubercle 
which appears not only at the point of injection but spreads 
to the neighboring lymph glands and internal organs (liver, 
spleen, lungs). Acid-fast, paratubercle bacilli, on the other 
hand, induce in guinea-pigs merely a local lesion at the 
point of injection which does not tend to spread from the 
primary focus. The inoculations may be made subcutane- 
ously, intramuscularly, intramammary (in nursing females), 
and intrapcritoneally. (See Bacteriology.) 

Course. — The course of tuberculosis in animals is chronic. 
An infected calf may show no clinical symptoms until it has 
reached maturity or even old age. Too frequently advanced 
tuberculosis which has lead to the near destruction of 
important organs (lungs, liver) or caused great areas of the 
pleura or peritoneum to be invaded is first discovered in the 
slaughter house. Only in the last stages of the disease, and 
then usually due to the invasion of secondary organisms 
(pus cocci), is it possible by the customary methods of 
physical examination to recognize the disease during life. 
A sudden generalization of the disease which may follow 
parturition, an attack of some acute disease, exposure and 
privation is sometimes noted. It may lead to death in a 
few weeks. As a rule, however, for months or years following 
infection the tuberculous ox seems in good health. Even cases 
of open tuberculosis may appear in normal health and 
condition. When clinical symptoms finally appear their 
development is slow and the decline of the patient 
gradual. 

Tuberculosis at first spreads slowly through a herd, but 
with each new victim another source of infection is supplied 
and the spread becomes more rapid. Finally, but usually 



406 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

after years, unless something is done to check its advance, 
a large percentage or the whole herd, irrespective of age, is 
infected. 

Prognosis.— Generally speaking, the prognosis in animal 
tuberculosis is unfavorable. While undoubtedly in some cases 
the process never develops beyond a few local lesions, and in 
others it may become arrested (encapsulement of foci of infec- 
tion), in the majority of cases the disease progresses con- 
tinuously and finally leads to clinical symptoms, decline, 
and death. That the sanitary conditions surrounding the 
tuberculous animal are of influence in the earlier stages of the 
disease, there is little doubt. It is frequently noted, however, 
that infected cattle kept under ideal conditions as to light, 
cleanliness, and ventilation not only do not improve in 
health, but actually become worse, the disease making 
recognizable progress in the individual and in the herd. 
This is especially true if open cases are not eradicated but 
kept to infect and reinfect their companions. 

Treatment. — A medicinal treatment is useless. In man, 
light, cleanliness, and ventilation, coupled with rest (especi- 
ally if the patient has fever), have checked or even healed 
the disease, provided it was not too far advanced. Whether 
similarly good results are obtainable among tuberculous cattle 
has not been adequately demonstrated. Too few scientific- 
ally conducted experiments in this regard have been made. 
Furthermore, the trouble, expense, and danger of treating 
individual animals would be prohibitive, and when com- 
pared with the preventive measures now employed to control 
and eradicate the disease (see Prophylaxis) become in- 
significant. Repeated injections of small doses of tuberculin 
has given good therapeutic results in man. In cattle the 
expense and trouble of administration make its use 
prohibitive. 

Prophylaxis. — (a) Tuberculosis may be kept out of a healthy 
cattle herd by preventing infected individuals from coming 
in contact with it. The disease is practically always intro- 
duced by a tuberculous animal. One open case of tuberculosis 
may in time infect a whole herd. Therefore all cattle brought 
into the herd should be proven free from tuberculosis by the 



T UBERC ULOSIS—CONS UMP TION 407 

tuberculin test, (b) Secondary to this is to promote a high 
resistance to disease in the individuals constituting the 
herd. This may be accomplished by proper breeding, 
feeding, good sanitary surroundings, and an outdoor life. 
It would be still safer once yearly to test the herd with 
tuberculin. 

Eradication. — Tuberculosis is a disease which is spread 
practically only by infected individuals. To remove these 
individuals is to remove the source of infection. While it is 
true that not all tuberculous animals are at all times passing 
tubercle bacilli and thus spreading infection, in practice 
any attempt to differentiate in favor of one case of the disease 
as against another (to determine whether "open" or "closed") 
is not feasible. A tuberculous ox is a menace and constant 
source of danger to the rest of the herd. It should therefore 
be removed from all contact, direct or indirect, from its 
susceptible companions. 

Generally speaking, there are two methods of eradicating 
the disease in cattle, both of which are based upon the 
permanent separation of the diseased from the healthy. 

A. Radical Method. — Commonly used in the United 
States, and where the disease has made limited progress. 
This method consists in testing the entire herd with tuber- 
culin and killing the reacting animals either on the premises, 
where the carcasses are rendered innoxious, or preferably 
in a central slaughter house, in which the carcasses are 
passed upon in regard to whether or not fit for food by 
competent veterinary inspectors. Subsequently the premises 
(stables, barns, etc.), are thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. 
This method is certain in its results but not always applicable. 
It does away with the necessity of keeping two herds (re- 
acting and healthy), and the rearing of the calves is not so 
cumbersome as with the palliative methods. 

B. Palliative Methods. — (a) The Bang method. Where the 
number of animals in a given herd is too great, or it is the 
desire to preserve valuable blood lines, a less drastic method 
of control has been suggested. It is as follows: All clinical 
cases of tuberculosis (lung, bowel, uterus, udder) are taken 
out of the herd and destroyed. Reacting cattle which show 



408 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

no clinical evidences of the disease are kept separated from 
the cattle which do not react to the tuberculin test, and 
the progeny of the herd is reared on milk which is free 
from tubercle bacilli, either by feeding it sterilized or 
allowing the calves to suckle only healthy dams or nurse 
cows. 

(b) The Ostertag method differs from that of Bang only 
in that the original herd is not tested with tuberculin and no 
separation of the diseased from the healthy is made. Clinical 
or known open cases are removed from the herd and all 
calves are reared and kept entirely isolated. Twice a year 
the herd is inspected by a veterinarian, but not tuberculined, 
and clinical cases which may have developed in the interim 
removed. The calves are tuberculin tested every six months. 
Reactors are removed or forbidden to be bred. The milk 
and feces are frequently examined bacteriologically. 

Protective Inoculation. — Depending upon the well-recog- 
nized fact that most strains (not all) of tubercle bacilli of the 
human type are little virulent to cattle, attempts have been 
made to produce immunity against bovine tuberculosis by 
inoculations with human tubercle bacilli. Other investi- 
gators have used attenuated bovine tubercle bacilli or have 
enclosed the bacilli in vehicles (colloidal sacs) to prevent their 
being taken up by the organism. A degree of immunity 
has thus been produced, but it is of short duration, nine to 
eighteen months, and in practice, as yet, has contributed 
little toward either the control or eradication of the disease. 
A certain danger attends inoculating cattle with tubercle 
bacilli of human type in that they sometimes produce lesions 
of tuberculosis, or at any rate are so slowly eliminated from 
the body (may remain alive in the body from two to two and 
one-half years) that the use for food of the animal so inocu- 
lated might lead to infection of human beings. There is a 
further possibility that the milk of cows so treated might 
contain human tubercle bacilli. The following methods of 
bovo vaccination are in vogue: 

1. von Behring's Bovovaccine. — The vaccine is made by 
drying tubercle bacilli (typus humanus) in a vacuum and 



TUBERCULOSIS CONSUMPTION 109 

injecting it at intervals into the jugular veins of calves. 
A marked resistance against subsequent artificial inoculation 
with cither bovine or human tuberculosis was acquired, 
but it lasted no longer than twelve to eighteen months. To 
repeat the vaccination each year would be expensive and the 
consequent elimination of bacilli highly Infective to man 
makes the method hazardous. 

2. Koch-Schutz Method. Consists in injecting an emul- 
sion of tubercle bacilli of human type into the veins of cattle. 
Nearly six months later three cattle so treated were still 
resistant enough to overcome highly virulent cultures of 
bovine tubercle bacilli with which they were inoculated. 
Subsequent experiments showed the immunity produced to 
be short-lived, not lasting a year. 

3. Klimmer's Method. — Two strains of human tubercle 
bacilli are employed, one which has been attenuated by 
heating to 52° C, and the other by being repeatedly passed 
through the salamander. The bacilli used are non-virulent 
(even to guinea-pigs) and passage through animals does not 
revive their pathogenic properties. The vaccine (called 
" antiphymatol") is injected subcutaneously (5 c.c). The 
injection should be repeated at least once a year. In infected 
individuals, where it is said to have therapeutic value, it is 
given every three months. Hygienic measures (separation, 
removal of open cases, feeding calves sterile milk, etc.), 
are recommended to accompany the vaccination. 

4. Hey maris method. — Consists in inserting under the skin 
of cattle a gelatin capsule containing tubercle bacilli (human 
or bovine). The metabolic products of the bacilli diffuse 
through the walls of the capsule and are taken up by 
the lymph, eventually impregnating the whole organism. 
Immunity is produced and in tuberculous animals a curative 
effect i> claimed. Cattle of any age, whether tuberculous 
or not, may be treated by this method (once yearly for 
durable immunity), for which good results are attested by 
the originator. 



410 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

INTESTINAL PARATUBERCULOSIS— JOHNE'S DISEASE. 

Specific Chronic Enteritis of the Ox. Chronic 
Bacterial Dysentery. 

Definition. — A chronic contagious disease of the bowels of 
cattle, which in the majority of cases leads to intermittent 
diarrhea, anemia, cachexia, and death. It is due to an 
acid-fast bacillus. 

Occurrence. — The disease was discovered in 1895 by 
Johne and Frothingham in Germany. It is not uncommon 
in the United States. Sporadic outbreaks and enzootics 
have been reported from several States. England and the 
continent of Europe are badly infected. In Switzerland and 
Denmark it causes considerable losses. It is probably much 
more prevalent than usually suspected, being confused with 
other chronic enterites and bowel tuberculosis. 

Etiology. — An acid-fast bacillus resembling the tubercle 
bacillus of avian type. The bacilli are found in the intestinal 
mucous membrane, and in the mesenteric lymph glands. 
The germ does not grow artificially unless cultivated on a 
special medium. It is probably distinct from the tubercle 
bacillus. (See Bacteriology.) 

Natural Infection. — The causal organisms are eliminated 
with the feces. They enter the body of a susceptible animal 
via digestive tract. The contagiousness of Johne 's disease 
has been proven by feeding experiments and successful 
transmission intravenously. This is further confirmed by 
the practical observation that when once introduced into a 
herd it spreads. 

Necropsy. — The cadaver is usually emaciated. The lesions 
are confined to the bowels and mesenteric lymph glands. 
In typical cases the mucous membrane of the small intestine 
and occasionally the colon and cecum is greatly thickened 
(sometimes fourfold) and thrown into folds or convolutions, 
some of them transverse, some longitudinal, giving the bowel 
a corrugated appearance. Coating the affected mucosa is 
a turbid, grayish-yellow, slimy exudate which is readily 
scraped off. The surface of the folds is usually smooth; the 



INTESTINAL PARATUBERCULOSIS 411 

crevices between ragged. Nodules and ulcers do not occur. 
The mesenteric glands and Peyer's patches are somewhat 
swollen. 

Symptoms. — As a rule only adult cattle are affected, 
although occasionally it may attack yearlings or even younger 
animals. The disease develops gradually and may go on 
for a year and not be noticed. The most prominent symp- 
toms are progressive emaciation and anemia. An inter- 
mittent diarrhea is an almost constant symptom. The feces 
are thin, gruel-like, or watery, and discharged without 
straining. In a few cases there may be no diarrhea, although 
the emaciation and anemia are present. 

The general condition of the patient gradually becomes 
bad. The animal grows very weak, the appetite capricious, 
lactation ceases, the hair coat is dull and erect, the eyes 
sunken, the body thin and wasted. 

Diagnosis. — As the symptoms are not especially character- 
istic, in the absence of a necropsy the diagnosis is difficult. 
The microscopic examination of the feces and scrapings 
from the wall of the rectum for the specific bacillus is helpful, 
but not very reliable, as often the rectum is not involved 
and from the feces usually only a few bacilli can be obtained 
which must be differentiated from tubercle bacilli and non- 
pathogenic acid-fast bacteria. 

O. Bang recommends testing the suspected cattle with 
tuberculin prepared from avian tubercle bacilli. Cattle 
affected with Johne's disease react to this form of tuberculin 
somewhat as do tubercular cattle to bovine tuberculin. The 
postinjection temperatures may reach as high as 105.8° F. 
As a rule, however, the postinjection temperatures are lower 
than in tuberculosis. Often associated with the rise in tem- 
perature occur constitutional disturbances, such as chill, 
diarrhea, etc. While tubercular cattle react to avian tuber- 
culin, those affected with Johne's disease do not react to 
bovine tuberculin. It is recommendable, therefore, to em- 
ploy both tuberculins in suspected cases that tubercu- 
losis be excluded. By thus testing and destroying the 
reactors the disease has been eradicated from a few herds in 
England. 



412 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Course. — The course is prolonged, extending over several 
months. It seems to be favorably influenced by an open-air 
life, but close confinement, advanced pregnancy, and par- 
turition affect the course adversely. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is bad. Cases which may be 
recognized clinically die in a few weeks to a few months. 

Treatment. — No successful treatment has yet been devised. 
The destruction of the diseased animals prevents further 
spread. 

CASEOUS LYMPHADENITIS OF SHEEP. 

Cheesy Bronchopneumonia of Sheep. Pseudo- 
tuberculosis of Sheep. 

Definition. — Caseous lymphadenitis is an infectious disease, 
due to a specific bacillus, which sometimes manifests itself 
as a subacute or chronic bronchopneumonia and at other 
times occurs as an affection of the superficial lymph glands. 

Occurrence. — The disease appears in the form of an 
epizootic in the western part of the United States, where it 
induces, especially among lambs, a large mortality, over two- 
thirds of the lambs dying of the disease. It therefore attains 
economic importance. The disease is not uncommon in 
Europe, Australia, and in the Argentine Republic. 

Etiology. — The cause is the Bacillus pseudotuberculosis 
ovis, a non-spore-bearing, immotile rod which may be easily 
stained with anilin dyes. It also stains, according to Gram. 
The germ is pathogenic to swine, guinea-pigs, and rabbits. 
Pigeons and fowls are not very susceptible. 

Natural Infection. — Infection probably takes place through 
the digestive tract, although it may enter through wounds 
(docking, castration), or the unshriveled navel of young 
calves. The droppings of infected sheep contain the bacillus 
in large numbers, and therefore form an important factor 
in spreading the disease. 

Necropsy. — The principal lesions are found in the lungs, 
lymph glands of the thorax, and the external lymph glands. 
Throughout the lung tissue numerous small, gray or grayish- 
green nodules occur which through coalescence may form 



ACTINOMYCOSIS— LUMP JAW 413 

large cheesy areas. There is frequently also present an 
adhesive pleuritis. The corresponding lymph glands may 
be intact. In many cases the lesions are confined to the 
external lymph glands, which are enlarged, and when incised 
show greenish-yellow, sticky, smeary, cheesy masses often 
arranged in concentric layers and surrounded by a capsule 
of connective tissue. Often, the caseous mass undergoes 
partial calcification, changing it to a grayish-white, gypsum- 
like mass. In rarer instances the abdominal organs are 
involved, especially the liver, spleen and kidneys and more 
rarely the mesenteric lymph glands. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are rather vague. Most 
cases are discovered in the slaughter house. Where the 
affection involves superficial lymph glands, tumors appear 
on the surface of the body, most frequently in the prescapular 
and precrural regions. They are about the size of an average 
potato and are not sensitive on palpation. The condition 
of the sheep otherwise may be normal except that the 
enlarged lymph glands may interfere with locomotion. 

When the lungs are affected the patient shows cough, 
dyspnea, anemia, emaciation, and ultimately cachexia and 
death. 

Course and Prognosis. — The course is prolonged, the disease 
lasting for weeks or months with a gradual wasting of the 
patient. The mortality varies but may reach, especially 
among lambs, as high as 70 per cent. 

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment is of no avail. The 
disease may be prevented to a certain extent by a thorough 
disinfection of the navel immediately after birth and of 
wounds, surgical and accidental. Vaccination has been 
successfully practised, using an attenuated strain of the 
bacillus. When feasible the infected droppings should be 
rendered innoxious by disinfection or removal to fields not 
used for sheep. 

ACTINOMYCOSIS. LUMP JAW. 

Definition. — Actinomycosis is an infectious disease due to 
a specific fungus and characterized clinically by the appear- 



414 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

ance of either connective-tissue enlargements, bone growths, 
or abscesses which usually occur about the head of the animal 
affected. The disease is not contagious. 

Occurrence. — While most common among cattle, actino- 
mycosis occurs occasionally in swine and rarely in horses. 
Cattle which have access to straw stacks, especially of 
barley or bearded wheat, are most often attacked. It may 
happen that a whole herd of steers or heifers running about 
a straw stack, which serves them for shelter and in part 
food, will become victims. Stable-fed cattle are often 
infected by forage fed in a dry state, but which was grown 
on lowlands subject to overflow. While clinically the disease 
is more important to the surgeon than to the internist, 
it not infrequently affects internal organs (lungs, liver, 
stomach), and leads to the condemnation of the carcass in 
the abattoir. 

Etiology. — The cause of the infection is a thread-like 
fungus known as the Streptothrix actinomyces or the Actino- 
myces bo vis. A common name for it is the ray fungus. 
This fungus grows on various kinds of grasses, but particu- 
larly on the awns and glumes of barley and related grasses, 
especially when these have grown on bottom lands subject 
to overflow. 

Natural Infection. — Infection takes place through the 
mucous membrane, usually of the mouth, or through wounds 
in the skin. Forage infested with the fungus, provided it 
contains sharp awns or glumes or the sharp cut ends of 
coarse straw (stubble), easily cuts the mucous membrane, 
introducing the fungus into the wound at the same time. 
Cattle from the Southwest suffer from eating cactus, the 
sharp spines of which wound the mouth. Obviously when the 
mucous membrane of the mouth is edematous and tender as 
occurs when the deciduous teeth are being shed the op- 
portunity for infection is greatest. Sometimes the infection 
enters the alveolus of a tooth, leading to the development of 
disease of the bone of the jaw (periostitis, osteitis, osteomye- 
litis). If the mucosa of the cheek is infected either abscesses 
(young animals) or connective-tissue growths appear about 
the head . If the tongue is invaded either a diffuse connective- 



ACTINOMYCOSIS— LUMP JAW 415 

tissue proliferation follows or multiple circumscribed actino- 
mycotic foci result. In swine sharp-pointed plant particles 
may enter the crypts of the tonsils and set up infection. 
Otherwise swine are most commonly infected through skin 
wounds. Sows with pendent udders pasturing on stubble 
fields often suffer from udder actinomycosis, and pigs are 
infected through castration wounds, especially if allowed 
access to straw stacks. The infection of internal organs may 
be primary or secondary. Actinomycosis may involve the 
udder, spermatic cord of castrated animals, vagina and via 
metastasis the liver, spleen, muscle, and brain. A generaliza- 
tion of the process is, however, rare. 

Symptoms. — Cattle. — Actinomycosis in cattle usually 
appears in one of the following forms: (a) Enlargements 
about the head, particularly in the neighborhood of the 
lower jaw (angle and between rami) and in the parotid 
region — the so-called actinomycoma. (b) An affection of the 
tongue, (c) Disease of the lips, (d) In the form of growths 
in the mouth, pharynx, and larynx. 

(a) In young cattle the enlargement may appear as an 
abscess which when evacuated is found to contain, mingled 
with the pus, numbers of pale or sulphur-yellow-colored 
granules (fungi). Such an enlargement presents the char- 
acterists of a subacute abscess. The connective-tissue 
growths are firm, non-sensitive, movable, the overlying skin 
partially adherent; their development is slow. In time 
they undergo puriform softening and perforate at one or 
more points. Out of the sinuses is discharged a viscid, 
mucopurulent exudate. If the bone is involved, the infection 
leads to periostitis, rarefying osteitis and osteomyelitis. 
The enlargement is hard, non-movable somewhat sensitive 
and usually involves one or more of the premolar teeth; it 
also tends to perforate. At first several openings appear 
which later merge into one large crater-like cavity from which 
issues a foul-smelling discolored discharge. 

(6) If the tongue is seriously involved prehension and 
mastication are interfered with. It will be noted in the 
earlier stages that the patient does not lick the corners of 
the manger or feed-box clean, as the tongue is stiff and 



41G CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

cannot be protruded sufficiently. There is more or less 
ptyalism and a gradual decline in the condition of the animal 
is observed. If proper treatment is not given the animal 
may become reduced to a skeleton. On opening the mouth 
the changes seen in the tongue will depend upon whether the 
organ is diffusely infiltrated or the process confined to iso- 
lated areas. In the former case the tongue appears larger 
than normal, is stiff, moved very little, and feels firm or 
hard. The organ may become entirely useless to the animal 
(so-called "wooden tongue"). In the second case throughout 
the tongue, especially along the dorsum, nodules from the 
size of a shoe-button to a hickory-nut are felt. Occasionally 
ulceration appears and usually just in front of the dorsal 
prominence of the tongue. Surrounding the ulcer cavity 
polypoid growths are often noted. The ulcer may be covered 
with accumulations of food, hairs, etc., and obscured from 
view. 

(c) Actinomycosis of the lips, while common in some 
parts of Europe, is rare in this country. As with the tongue 
there occurs a proliferation of the connective tissue, especially 
of the upper lip, which becomes firm and rigid and greatly 
increased in size. In other cases multiple nodules from the 
size of a pea to a walnut appear in the connective tissue 
of the lip. 

(d) Actinomycosis of the pharynx leads to severe dyspnea, 
dysphagia and swelling in the subparotid region, which in 
some cases is quite marked. The pharyngeal enlargement 
may be palpated from without (head extended) or through 
the mouth. In calves firm growths the size of a fist may be 
palpated in the thyroid region. They produce dysphagia, 
dyspnea with wheezy respirations, and general unthrif tiness ; 
marked rales may be heard on auscultation over the throat. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of actinomycosis depends upon 
finding of the ray fungus under the microscope. The 
lesions described are suggestive. Swellings due to injury 
might be confused with actinomycomas. However, these 
appear suddenly, show an inflammatory character and a 
benign course. Occasionally foreign bodies (bones, shoe 
soles) may lodge between the teeth and the cheeks, causing 



GLANDERS— MALLEUS 417 

a protrusion of the latter which resembles slightly an actino- 
mycoma. Actinomycosis of the larynx or pharynx might be 
easily confused with tuberculosis. However, the affection of 
the corresponding lymph glands which occurs in the latter 
and rarely, if ever, in the former and the use of the tuberculin 
test should suffice for differentiation. 

Course and Prognosis. — The course in actinomycosis is 
chronic, the disease gradually progressing from month to 
month until it terminates fatally. A few cases which are 
mild may recover spontaneously. As a rule, where bone is 
not involved and the location of the lesion permits of opera- 
tion, surgical intervention produces a cure; or if taken early 
and the lesion is internal (tongue, pharynx) or external 
healing is possible through the use of iodin. 

Treatment. — Superficial actinomy comas are treated sur- 
gically by extirpation and subsequent cauterization or tinc- 
ture of iodin applied to the wound. Bone enlargements 
are usually incurable. Tongue and throat lesions and in- 
operable actinomycomas are successfully treated with iodin 
in the form of iodid of potash. This is administered in doses 
of 2\ drams per day for each 1000 pounds animal. Each 
dose of iodid of potash is dissolved in a pint of water and 
given as a drench, repeated daily for ten days or two weeks 
or until symptoms of iodism appear (discharge from nose 
and eyes, peeling off of superficial layers of skin, loss of 
appetite). The use of the drug is then discontinued until 
all symptoms of iodism subside, when it may be again ad- 
ministered. It usually requires from three to four weeks to 
produce a cure. A few animals show no reaction to the 
treatment. These had best be slaughtered. In addition it 
is recommended to paint the tumors with tincture of iodin 
or to inject into them Lugol's solution. With the iodin 
treatment on the average about 75 per cent, of the cases 
recover. 

GLANDERS. MALLEUS. 

Definition. — Glanders is a contagious, usually chronic 
infectious disease of horses, asses, and mules. It is char- 
acterized by the formation of nodules which tend to degen- 

27 



418 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

erate and form ulcers in the mucous membranes, skin, and 
internal organs, especially, the lungs. The disease occasion- 
ally attacks man and carnivorous animals. Sheep and goats 
may be inoculated artificially. 

Occurrence. — Glanders is generally distributed throughout 
the world. It is commonest in cities or on the ranges where 
large numbers of horses are congregated together, giving it 
greater opportunity for spread. In the United States it is 
especially common in the larger cities, and has occurred on 
the ranges in the Northwest. As glanders is a local disease 
in its incipient stages, presenting no clinical symptoms, and 
usually takes a chronic course, horse owners and persons 
ignorant of its character not only resist efforts to eradicate 
the disease but disregard its contagious character. It is not 
uncommon in the United States to find glandered horses 
housed, fed, watered, and even worked with healthy horses. 
Through this neglect glanders is probably more wide-spread 
in this than in any other country in the world. Scandinavia 
and Australia are free from it. 

Etiology. — Glanders is due to the Bacillus mallei, a straight 
or slightly curved, aerobic bacillus, which has a characteristic 
growth on potatoes and is essentially an obligatory parasite. 

Natural Infection. — Susceptible animals are infected with 
glanders: (a) Through the digestive tract with the food and 
water which has been contaminated with the discharges 
(nasal, farcy-bud) or more rarely with manure and urine 
of glandered animals, (b) Through skin wounds. Infection 
through skin wounds is very rare. It may follow the use of 
an infected harness which rubs and chafes the skin, (c) 
Through the respiratory tract. It is exceedingly uncommon 
for glanders to be transmitted in this way, especially if the 
mucous membranes are intact. The inhalation of the moist 
spray coughed or sneezed out by a glandered patient is not a 
common occurrence; in the dry state the glanders bacilli 
have a very low virulency. At any rate, primary nasal and 
lung glanders are ' exceedingly rare forms, (d) By the act 
of coitus. Occasionally instances of transmission of the 
disease from an infected stallion to a mare through copulation 
are recorded. 



GLANDERS— MALLEUS 419 

Glanders is nearly always introduced into a stable through 
an infected individual, usually a horse suffering from chronic 
pulmonary glanders, and which shows no symptoms of either 
nasal or skin glanders. From this animal it usually spreads 
to the ones next adjacent or sometimes to animals farther 
removed in other parts of the stable. When the horses are 
permitted to drink out of a common trough or fed out of a 
common crib, the infection spreads more rapidly than 
under opposite conditions. It is a notorious fact that an 
apparently sound horse may infect a large number of horses 
with which it comes in direct or indirect contact. Dealers' 
stables and livery barns may be more or less permanently 
infected. Strange horses brought there to be fed or watered 
are thus exposed to the infection. Public watering troughs 
are particularly dangerous in this regard. The horse is not 
as susceptible to glanders as the ass or the mule. In fact, 
horses offer a remarkable resistance to infection, the disease 
in them usually assuming a chronic form, and sometimes 
ending in recovery. In asses glanders usually takes an acute 
course with rapid and fatal termination. The mule in this 
regard seems to stand between the two. Obviously anything 
which will reduce the resistance of the horse, such as over- 
work, poor food, exposure to weather, etc., will render 
the animal more susceptible. 

Symptoms. — Following natural infection, weeks or months 
may elapse before clinical symptoms appear, although during 
this time the patient may show an occasional rise in tem- 
perature. In not a few instances prominent clinical symptoms 
never occur during the life of the patient. 

The period of incubation is usually placed at two weeks. 

For convenience it is customary to classify glanders from a 
clinical standpoint as: (a) Nasal glanders; (b) skin glanders; 1 
(c) pulmonary glanders. In this connection it is well to bear 
in mind, however, that any two or all three of these forms 
may be combined. Further, it is very rare not to find pul- 
monary glanders present either alone or associated with 
skin and nasal lesions. 

1 Skin glanders was formerly known as farcy, which term is now practi- 
cally obsolete, 



420 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Nasal Glanders. — The first symptom noted is usually 
nasal discharge, which is very commonly unilateral. The 
quality and amount? of the discharge vary greatly. In 
chronic glanders it is at first serous or mucoserous; later it 
becomes more copious, quite viscid, and often mixed with 
blood. The discharge tends to adhere to the wings of the 
nostrils where it dries to form brownish crusts. Coughing 
or sneezing momentarily augments the discharge which is 
rarely odorous. 

The nasal mucosa is swollen, of a leaden hue, and the 
veins much distended. If low enough down in the nasal 
cavity, nodules from the size of a shot to a pea may be seen 
and felt. They are of a gray or yellow color, and often 
surrounded by a red zone. These nodules soon break down, 
forming ragged ulcers with a dirty yellow base. By confluence 
large irregular areas of ulceration develop, especially on the 
septum, but also on the turbinals. In some cases the whole 
mucosa becomes an ulcerated surface. The favorite seats 
of the ulcers are the septum nasi, turbinals, and the nostril 
margins, particularly the internal surface of the internal 
wing. As the ulcers age their walls become thickened, 
bolster-like, and the base paler. Often between the ulcers 
peculiar stellate, radiate or irregular elongated, elevated 
proliferations of connective tissue appear, the so-called 
" star-shaped cicatrices." Sometimes they are not associated 
with ulcers, the latter having healed. With the development 
of the cicatrices and the disappearance of the ulcers the 
nasal discharge ceases. Occasionally an ulcer occurs on the 
apex of the scar. When the mucosa is much thickened, due 
to the chronic indurative inflammation, the lumen of the 
nasal passages is so encroached upon that pronounced nasal 
inspiratory dyspnea with wheezing, blowing sounds is heard 
on exercise. Ulceration of the lower part of the nose may 
extend to the skin of the lips, which becomes swollen. Nodules 
and ulcers may appear in the swollen area. 

The submaxillary lymph glands of the affected side are 
always enlarged in nasal glanders. At first the glands are 
diffusely swollen, somewhat hot and tender, but later they 
become well circumscribed, painless, and nodular. In time 



GLANDERS— MALLEUS 421 

they adhere to the jaw, the skin over them becoming im- 
movable. With the eruption of fresh nodes or ulcers in the 
nose the submaxillary glands may show temporary inflam- 
matory symptoms. Spontaneous rupture of the swellings 
is very rare. Occasional conjunctivitis and keratitis may 
accompany nasal glanders. 

Skin Glanders. — In skin glanders so-called farcy nodes 
(farcy-buds) and ulcers (chancres) occur in the subcutaneous 
connective tissue and skin. The nodes vary in size from a 
pea to a walnut. They soon break down, forming ulcers. 
They may appear without infiltration of the adjacent con- 
nective tissue, but very commonly a zone of reactive inflam- 
mation surrounds them. The ulcers are irregular in shape, 
with ragged edges which overhang the base. The base of 
the ulcer is usually of a dirty gray color, although it may be 
covered by a brownish scab. The discharge may be scant 
and thin or more copious and thick. In the former case it 
has an oily appearance and a very viscid consistency. In the 
latter a thick pus is discharged which does not adhere readily 
to the hair. While the ulcers are generally indolent, they not 
infrequently heal, leaving behind small scars which do not 
entirely become covered with hair. 

The lymph vessels in the neighborhood of the nodes and 
ulcers are frequently swollen, appearing like cords or ridges 
under the skin. They are usually hot and sensitive. After 
remaining for a time they may gradually disappear, or along 
their course ulcers erupt. The superficial lymph glands 
(inguinal, popliteal, prepectoral) may become swollen, hot 
and tender. Later they are hard and less sensitive. 

In chronic skin glanders there is a tendency for the skin 
and subcutis of one or more limbs (especially the hind ones) 
to undergo fibrous thickening (elephantiasis) which ends 
abruptly at the hoof. Quite often the patient is lame. 

Pulmonary Glanders. — Nearly every case of glanders begins 
in the lungs. As a rule, however, the earlier symptoms of 
pulmonary glanders are so vague that a diagnosis from 
physical examination alone is impossible (so-called "occult" 
glanders). As in tuberculosis of the ox, months may elapse 
before the infected patient shows clinical evidence of the 



422 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

disease. In the meantime a number of horses may become 
infected by the unsuspected " occult case." The patient 
may show occasional cough, which is usually dull, weak, 
and dry. Less often periodical slight nasal hemorrhages 
(epistaxis) are noted. The horse may tire easily at work and 
show dyspneic symptoms resembling "heaves." From time 
to time the temperature may be elevated 1° or 2°. Percussion 
of the thorax usually gives negative results. In rare cases 
dulness from an area of the lung may be determined, which 
speaks for a superficially located glanders tumefaction at 
least the size of a double clenched fist. Auscultation is 
usually negative, although after a smart gallop moist rales 
are heard in some cases, especially if the ear is placed over 
the lower end of the trachea. The trachea is sensitive on 
palpation in individual instances (tracheitis). If the larynx 
is involved, spasmodic cough and inspiratory dyspnea with 
stenotic noise are noted. As a rule, in time the general 
condition of the patient becomes bad. It loses weight, the 
hair coat appears dull, and the mane and tail hairs become 
loose. In some cases there is a tendency for passive edemas 
to develop on the limbs and pendent portions of the body 
(sheath, udder, ventral part of the abdomen). Following 
a remission in the course of the disease these dropsical 
symptoms may temporarily disappear. 

Diagnosis. — Provided the clinical symptoms are well 
developed the diagnosis of glanders is not difficult. The 
occurrence of the nodules, characteristic ulcers, and stellate 
cicatrices on the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity, 
the enlargement of the submaxillary lymph glands, and the 
symptoms of fever are almost pathognomonic. However, 
in many cases the lesions are too high up in the nasal 
cavity (or they may be in the adjacent sinuses) to be seen 
or felt. In these cases, unless there is a history of glanders 
infection, or other horses or mules on the premises showing 
typical lesions, the diagnosis from ordinary physical examina- 
tion may be impossible. 

The skin glanders is characterized by the indolent ulcers 
which often are not surrounded by a zone of acute inflam- 
mation. However, any persistent edematous swelling, 



GLANDERS— MALLE US 423 

nodular thickening or ulcer formation on any part of the 
body, especially under the abdomen, sheath or udder should 
be looked upon with suspicion. 

Differential Diagnosis. — There are a number of diseases 
producing nasal discharge, lesions on the nasal mucous 
membranes, swellings of the submaxillary lymph glands, 
and nodules and ulcers in the skin. At times some of these 
appear strikingly like glanders. Formerly when a differen- 
tiation was only possible by carefully weighing the clinical 
phenomena these diseases were extremely important to 
consider. However, we have now available several accurate 
methods of diagnosis which can be employed. When doubt 
exists in clinical cases or when there is no clinical evidence of 
the disease, although the patient has been exposed, the 
following methods of diagnosis are now available. 

(a) The Mallein Test. — Mallein which is prepared from 
the glanders bacillus, much as tuberculin is prepared from the 
tubercle bacillus, when properly used, is a reliable test for 
glanders. It may be instilled into the eyelid (ophthalmic 
reaction) or applied subcutaneously (hypodermic) or rubbed 
into a disinfected area of the scarified skin (endermic). The 
ophthalmic method is now most generally employed and 
seems to be the most accurate of the three. 

The ophthalmic method of using mallein is quite simple. 
It consists in dropping into one of the eyes of the animal to 
be tested 3 to 5 drops of concentrated mallein, or the mallein 
may be introduced into the conjunctival sac with a camel- 
hair brush. The reaction usually begins five or six hours 
after the instillation of the mallein and lasts from twenty-four 
to thirty-six hours. A positive reaction is manifested by an 
accumulation of yellow exudate at the inner canthus of the 
eye to which the mallein has been applied. In some cases 
the discharge is very slight, in others profuse and usually 
associated with severe conjunctivitis; at other times the 
conjunctivitis is absent. The intensity of the reaction is not 
an index of the extent of the disease. Ordinary mallein 
used for subcutaneous testing is not adaptable. The Bureau 
of Animal Industry prepares a special mallein for ophthalmic 
tests, which contains no glycerin as a preservative. Some 



424 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

experimenters have used dry mallein (mallein siccum). As a 
rule positive reactions are not attended by fever or systemic 
disturbances. Some glandered horses, however, are so 
hypersensitive to mallein that they give a thermic reaction. 
It is therefore advisable to take the temperature just before 
the mallein is instilled and again when the eye is being 
examined to determine the reaction. When the reaction is 
doubtful the complement-fixation test may be used as a 
control. The test may be repeated within twenty-four hours 
on the same or control eye. If another retest is necessary 
it should not be made in less than three weeks. 
The subcutaneous method is applied as follows: 

1. The normal rectal temperatures of the horse to be 
tested are first determined one or two days before the injec- 
tion of mallein is made, best taking them each morning, 
noon, and evening. 

2. The mallein is injected in doses of 1 c.c. into the side 
of the neck. 

3. Beginning four to eight hours after the injection, the 
post injection temperatures are obtained every two hours 
until the twentieth hour after injection, and carefully 
recorded. 

Interpretation of Results. — A typical reaction consists in 
an elevation of temperature of at least 3.6° F., and must 
exceed 104° F. The temperature curve usually remains at an 
elevation for some time, or it may take a slight drop and 
rise again later in the day. Such a reaction is spoken of as 
positive. On the second and sometimes on the third day 
a second temperature curve, though usually less pronounced, 
may occur. 

When the postinfection temperature exceeds the highest 
preinjection temperature 2.7° F. and reaches 103.1° F. 
or over, and a marked swelling occurs at the point of 
inoculation, the swelling being hot, sensitive and at least 
5 to 10 cm. in diameter the reaction is positive. The swelling 
should persist for at least twenty-four to thirty hours. 

The reaction is doubtful even if the temperature exceeds 
3.6° F. and no local reaction appears. 

The reaction is negative when, notwithstanding the height 



GLANDERS— MALLEUS 425 

that the temperature may reach, the febrile condition does 
not last at least four to six hours. 

The reaction is negative when the temperature elevation 
is not more than 1.8° F. and does not exceed 102.5° F. 

A positive reaction denotes that the patient is affected 
with glanders. An atypical reaction indicates that the case 
should be considered suspicious. A negative reaction denotes 
the absence of glanders. Cases of doubtful reaction should 
be retested but not sooner than fifteen days to six weeks 
following the next previous test. 

(b) Serum Diagnosis by Means of Agglutination. — The 
so-called agglutination test for glanders is a fairly reliable 
laboratory method in which the serum of the blood of a 
suspected horse is prepared in various dilutions by means of 
the addition of physiological salt solution. In order to 
determine the agglutinating power equal quantities of emul- 
sions of glanders bacilli which have been attenuated by heat- 
ing at 60° C. (test fluid) are added to the serum solutions. 
Blood serum which will agglutinate glanders bacilli in dilu- 
tions 1 to 1000 or in greater dilutions must be considered 
as coming from a glandered horse. Agglutinations occurring 
only in dilutions ranging from 1 to 500 to 1000 are doubtful. 
Agglutinations in dilutions of less than 500 indicate the 
absence of glanders. The test often fails in chronic glanders, 
the serum in such cases having a very low agglutinating 
power. On the other hand, some healthy horses possess an 
agglutinating power as high as that found in some glandered 
horses. Healthy horses recently malleinized (within three 
months) may give a positive agglutination reaction. 

Since it is the degree of agglutination and not agglutination 
itself that determines whether or not infection is present, 
misinterpretations are unavoidable. When the agglutination 
test is to be employed the veterinarian usually only collects 
the serum under proper precautions and sends it to ex- 
perienced laboratory men. 

(c) Serum Diagnosis by Means of Complement-fixation. — 
This is a laboratory method for the diagnosis of glanders 
which seems to be very accurate. Practically it is the 
application to glanders of the Wassermann test for syphilis 



426 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

in man. The test should be made by an experienced manipu- 
lator in a properly equipped laboratory. The practitioner 
usually only collects the serum as in the agglutination test. 
The results so far obtained from this method are very 
encouraging (for details see Bacteriology). 

(d) Inoculation of Experimental Animals. — For this pur- 
pose a young male guinea-pig is chosen which is inocu- 
lated intraperitoneally with an emulsion in sterile water 
of nasal or skin ulcer discharge from a suspicious case. 
One or 2 c.c. are injected into the abdominal cavity of the 
guinea-pig. If the bacilli of glanders are present, swelling 
of the scrotum, followed by adhesion of the testicles, will 
occur in two or three days. Sometimes only a skin abscess 
at the point of inoculation appears. The danger of general 
septicemia may, be avoided by keeping the material in a 
refrigerator for a few days before inoculation. Potato 
cultures should always be made from the lesions in the 
scrotum. On potato the true glanders bacilli produces yellow 
colonies resembling honey, while the pseudoglanders bacillus 
produces white colonies. Positive evidence obtained from 
this method is, of course, much more valuable than negative. 
Occasionally the discharge collected, even though it comes 
from a glandered animal, may not contain glanders bacilli. 
The agglutination and complement-fixation tests have largely 
superseded this method. 

Course. — The course in glanders is very varied. Like 
tuberculosis of the ox its duration is usually a matter of 
months or years. The chronic course may be interrupted 
by acute exacerbations and remissions, until finally the 
disease assumes a clinical form in which either nasal or skin 
glanders or both become manifest. The patient either 
dies or is destroyed. In rare instances death may result 
from inanition or occur suddenly following pulmonary 
hemorrhage. The periods of fever which occur during the 
course of the chronic disease are probably due to the develop- 
ment of fresh foci. 

To a certain extent the course depends upon the food and 
care which is given the patient. Poorly fed, overworked 
horses more readily succumb to the disease. The nasal 



EPIZOOTIC LYMPHANGITIS 427 

discharge which becomes mixed with the food and water and 
is ingested by the patient produces continual reinfection, 
which increases the development of the disease. 

A few cases of pulmonary glanders and even nasal and skin 
glanders recover. Such instances, however, are exceptional 
in temperate climates. It is said that in tropical countries 
glanders sometimes assumes a more benign form, and that 
patients showing marked clinical symptoms of the disease 
ultimately recover. Similar observations have been made in 
the western United States. They belong to the exceptional 
rather than the rule. 

EPIZOOTIC LYMPHANGITIS. 

Japanese Fakcy. Sacchakomycosis. 

Definition. — Epizootic lymphangitis is a chronic, com- 
municable disease of solipeds which manifests itself as a 
suppurative inflammation of the subcutaneous lymph vessels 
and regionary lymph glands. 

Occurrence. — The disease occurs in southern Europe, 
but has also been reported from Finland, Russia, and 
England. It is common in Asia (Japan, India) and Africa. 
Whether or not true cases have occurred in the United 
States is problematical. The ones so diagnosed are probably 
"sporotrichosis" presenting similar symptoms. 

Etiology. — The cause is supposed to be the Cryptococcus 
farciminosus, large oval bodies very difficult to stain, found 
in the discharge from ulcers. In the cases which occurred 
in Pennsylvania bacteriological investigations failed to reveal 
the cryptococcus but did show the presence of a sporothrix 
identical with that isolated from man. Evidently the 
Pennsylvania outbreak, and very probably the other out- 
breaks in this country, were not identical with the epizootic 
lymphangitis first described by Tokishiga (1896) and Pallin 
(1904) in horses in Japan and India. 

Natural Infection. — Evidently occurs through small lesions 
in the skin. The cryptococcus is probably carried by inter- 
mediate agents such as harness, bedding, stable utensils, 



428 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

etc. It is also possible that insects may be carriers of the 
infection. The disease is most common in cold, damp 
weather. Asses and mules seem more predisposed than 
horses. Cattle are very rarely affected. 

Symptoms. — The disease usually first attacks the limbs, 
particularly the forelimbs, but may also occur on the scrotum 
or udder, or more rarely the body and neck. Usually the 
disorder originates in a wound or fresh cicatrix. A wound so 
infected does not heal but is converted into an ulcer with 
exuberant granulations. From a cicatrix a painful nodule 
the size of a pigeon's egg forms, which later erupts, discharg- 
ing a thick, yellow pus. Soon the inflammation involves 
the lymph vessels, which become swollen, corded, and very 
painful, and along their course fresh abscesses develop. 
The abscesses rupture, forming ulcers which heal slowly. 
The ulcers show a tendency to exuberant granulation, and 
by confluence are spread and may produce great ulcerous 
surfaces. The regionary lymph glands are involved in the 
process; not infrequently abscesses form in them. As a 
rule the infected limbs swell; particularly about the joints 
and in the overlying skin superficial ulcers develop. 

In rare instances the morbid process may involve the 
nasal mucous membrane, on which form white nodules and 
later ulcers which tend to coalesce. The submaxillary lymph 
glands are involved and may suppurate. Nasal discharge 
is rare. Usually the appetite and temperature remain normal. 

Diagnosis. — The disease closely resembles skin glanders, 
especially chronic cases. In doubtful instances the usual 
tests for glanders may be applied. Otherwise a microscopic 
examination of the pus from a true case of epizootic lymphan- 
gitis will show the characteristic parasites. Ulcerous lym- 
phangitis takes a much milder course and the pus contains 
the characteristic bacillus. 

Course. — The course is chronic. Mild cases last one or 
two months. Remissions and exacerbations are not 
uncommon. The mortality varies from 7 to 10 per cent. 
Patients which recover are usually left with thick legs. 

Treatment. — The treatment is largely surgical (extirpation 
of the nodules, early opening of abscesses, antiseptic treat- 



ULCEROUS LYMPHANGITIS OF THE HORSE 429 

ment of ulcers) . Iodid of potash improved but did not cure 
the condition. 

Prophylaxis. — Prevention consists in separating the sick 
from the healthy, and a thorough disinfection of the 
premises. 



ULCEROUS LYMPHANGITIS OF THE HORSE. 

Definition. — Ulcerous lymphangitis is a chronic, infectious 
disease of horses characterized by a progressive, suppurative 
inflammation of the subcutaneous lymph vessels along the 
course of which there form ulcers. The regionary lymph 
glands are not involved. 

Occurrence. — The disease was first described by Nocard in 
France. No outbreaks have been reported in the United 
States. A similar disease has been observed in the Philippine 
Islands. 

Etiology. — The disease is due to a bacillus resembling the 
bacillus of caseous lymphadenitis of sheep. 

Natural Infection. — The bacillus evidently enters through 
small wounds, particularly in the skin of the legs. The 
disease is not communicable. 

Symptoms. — The first symptom noted is a diffuse swelling 
of the hindlimbs. In the swollen limb develop circumscribed, 
painful nodules which undergo puriform softening, forming 
ulcers with thin borders from which is discharged at first a 
creamy, later a thinner pus. The ulcers tend to heal readily, 
especially if antiseptics have been applied to them. Usually 
following the healing of the first ulcers a new crop of nodules 
and ulcers form between which the lymph vessels swell 
to strands the thickness of a finger. Along the course of 
these swollen lymph vessels new nodules and ulcers con- 
tinually develop. In this manner the disorder may continue 
for several months. In rare cases the forelimbs, body, neck 
and even the head may be attacked, leading to the death of 
the patient. In some instances the disease takes a chronic 
course, the nodules and ulcers appearing in the winter, heal 
during the summer months, to reoccur again the following 



430 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

winter. The regionary lymph glands, while swollen, do riot 
take part in the suppurative process. 

Diagnosis. — The disease resembles in some respects skin 
glanders. There are, however, differences from a clinical 
standpoint. The ulcers are not indolent as in glanders but 
heal readily; the regionary lymph glands are not involved; 
the nasal mucous membrane is intact, and no reaction occurs 
to mallein. The pus from the nodules and ulcers contains 
the short Gram-positive bacillus, which will not grow on 
acid potato. In guinea-pigs a very rapidly developing 
periorchitis follows intraperitoneal injection, the purulent 
exudate containing the characteristic bacillus. Compared 
with epizootic lymphangitis, ulcerous lymphangitis is a mild 
disease. In the former the round or oval cryptococci are 
found in large numbers. The disorder resembles contagious 
acne, which, however, is found usually only where the saddle 
or harness comes in contact with the skin. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in washing out the 
ulcers with antiseptics. If the process tends to spread the 
nodules may be opened and disinfected. Some cases resist 
treatment obstinately. Good results are reported from the 
subcutaneous injection of diphtheria antitoxin (50 c.c. 
daily). 

INFECTIOUS ABORTION. 

Definition. — Infectious abortion is a specific inflammation 
of the mucous membrane of the uterus, which in pregnant 
animals leads to an affection of the fetal membranes and 
often to the premature birth of the fetus. 

Occurrence. — Infectious abortion occurs most frequently 
among cows and mares. It is relatively uncommon in ewes 
and sows. Among cattle it is widely distributed, forming 
one of the commonest infectious diseases with which we have 
to deal. In many of the Eastern States, where cattle breeding 
is extensively carried on, fully 70 per cent, of the herds are 
infected. Among mares it is widely distributed but obviously 
attracts more attention in breeding studs where a large 
number of foals are lost on a single farm. Isolated cases 
may escape unnoticed. The disease attains economic im- 



INFECTIOUS ABORTION 431 

portance not only because it leads to the loss of a number 
of calves or foals but also in cows to the cases of sterility, 
retentions of afterbirth, chronic uterine catarrhs, and diseases 
of the udder which follow in its wake. It not only destroys 
the young but may greatly lessen the value of or even 
extirpate the dam. 

Etiology.— (a) In cows the disease is caused by the Bacillus 
abortus. This is a small, non-motile, non-spore-bearing 
bacillus which stains irregularly with anilin dyes but is Gram- 
negative. In cultures the bacillus is originally anaerobic but 
gradually assumes aerobic characteristics. It is found in the 
uterine exudate, fetal membranes, and in the fetus; also in 
the udder (milk) of infected cows. The germ is highly 
resistant and may remain virulent in the uterus of infected 
cows for several months after they have aborted. The 
disease is spread primarily by the uterine discharge, fetal 
membranes, and fetuses of infected cows. 

(6) The abortion of mares is not due to the abortus 
bacillus but to a streptococcus which is Gram-negative. It 
is found in the uterus, fetal membranes, and fetuses of 
infected mares. 

Natural Infection. — The infection is taken up by the 
susceptible mother: (a) Through the digestive tract, the 
causal germ contaminating the food and water; (6) through 
the genital organs which may become infected by the stable 
litter, manure, etc., or by contact with such utensils as 
buckets, milking stools, ropes, halters, sponges, douching 
hose, obstetrical instruments, etc. The bull may also be a 
carrier of infection as he can transmit by coitus the bacilli 
which have collected on the penis during copulation with an 
infected female. 

Whether the bull is merely a mechanical carrier or the 
abortus bacillus may proliferate in the genitalia causing him 
to become also infected and therefore a permanent distributor 
remains undecided. Experimentally, abortion has been 
induced in pregnant animals by introducing pure cultures 
of the abortus bacillus into the vagina, stomach, and veins. 

The disease is practically always brought into a herd 
through an infected female which has either recently aborted 



432 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

or is eliminating the causal germ in her vaginal discharge 
and milk. The tendency for cattle owners to dispose of 
cows which have aborted insures a wide dissemination of the 
disease. In rare instances the premises may become infected 
through a contaminated bull to which the cows of the herd 
have been brought for service. In still rarer instances a 
very young calf from an infected mother may introduce the 
infection. That persons, dogs, fowls, and birds of the air 
may also carry infection from infected to non-infected 
premises is probable. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation following natural or 
artificial inoculation is varied. It averages from natural 
exposure about four months (33 to 230 days). Artificial 
transmission of vaginal discharge from diseased to healthy 
cows was followed by abortion in 9 to 21 days. The symp- 
toms which indicate the presence of the disease in a cow 
herd are: (a) A number of cows are dropping their calves 
prematurely; (6) cows which have aborted show an abnormal 
vaginal discharge, and (c) the appearance of symptoms of 
premature labor, especially in heifers. 

The first few cases of abortion in a herd may be entirely 
overlooked, as they are apt to happen during the first weeks 
(five to seven) of pregnancy when the fetus is very small. 
A given cow may thus abort, be rebred, conceive and abort 
again without the owner's attention being attracted to the 
condition. Finally after aborting twice or more times she 
may carry to full term and be delivered of a viable, fully 
developed calf. Such a cow is spoken of as an "immune" in 
the sense that she will not abort again, although she is still 
diseased and can infect other cows. Abortion seems most 
common in the fifth to seventh months of pregnancy, usually 
occurring on or about the 190th day, but varying from the 
149th to the 254th day. Quite often before the actual 
abortion occurs the cow shows prodromal symptoms such as 
filling of the udder, edema of the vulva, colostral milk, 
sinking on each side of the tail-root, congestion of the vaginal 
mucosa and the discharge of a reddish or yellow odorless, 
viscid fluid. The expulsion of the uterine contents usually 
occurs, however, without marked labor pains and the fetus 



INFECTIOUS ABORTION 433 

comes dead. After the abortion the placenta is -often retained 
and a vaginal discharge persists. For two or three weeks or 
longer the discharge is of a dirty reddish-brown color, odor- 
less or odorous, the flow either continuous or interrupted. 
In time the discharge usually diminishes. When bred during 
this period the cow may not conceive. It occurs occasionally 
that cows, especially heifers, may show all of the premonitory 
symptoms of abortion, fail to abort and carry to full term. 

Necropsy. — On postmortem the uterus appears externally 
normal. Between the mucosa and the chorion is found an 
exudate which is fluid to semisolid and of light brownish- 
yellow color. The fetus appears normal. In other cases 
symptoms of hydropsy and mummification of the fetus are 
present, conditions which can begin in the third month of 
pregnancy. 

Diagnosis. — On account of its great prevalency the diag- 
nosis from the physical signs alone is not difficult. All 
cases of multiple abortions in a cow herd or horse stud 
should be looked upon with suspicion, and until disproven 
considered cases of infectious abortion. As contributory 
to diagnosis a bacteriological examination of the vaginal 
discharge, the uterine exudate, the placenta or the fetus 
may be made. However, this is rarely feasible in practice. 
Of late the complement-fixation test has been extensively 
employed. While this test is not so accurate as the comple- 
ment-fixation test for glanders it nevertheless forms a 
valuable contribution to the diagnosis. In cases of doubtful 
reaction (incomplete hemolysis) a retest should be made in 
four to six weeks. A negative reaction does not necessarily 
exclude the abortion bacillus, as the infection may have 
occurred so recently that the immune bodies have not yet 
formed in sufficient amount to bring about the reaction. 
The agglutination test is also used. It is found that the 
blood serum of cattle suffering from infectious abortion 
possesses an average agglutinating value of 1000 and may 
cause agglutination in dilutions as high as 16,000. In 
healthy cows the agglutinating value of the serum is rarely 
above 50. So-called "abortin," which is prepared from the 
abortus bacillus much as tuberculin is prepared from the 
28 



434 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

tubercle bacillus, has failed to give uniformly satisfactory 
results. The reaction is a thermic one with which are some- 
times associated constitutional symptoms. 

Course. — Infectious abortion usually persists in a herd 
for years. After the first abortions, often overlooked or 
attributed to other causes by the owner, new cases occur 
with a few weeks' interval between. Finally the abortions 
become more and more frequent until a full-term calf is a 
rarity in the herd. In time, however, the abortions occur 
at less frequent intervals. Cows which have aborted one or 
more times carry to full term (become tolerant — so-called 
"immunes")- Clean cows introduced into the herd may be 
the only ones to abort. Ultimately, in two or three years, 
the abortions cease entirely, provided the herd has been 
kept intact. However, there are exceptions to this rule 
and not infrequently individual cows fail to produce full- 
term calves. 

Treatment. — Once the disease has gained a foothold in a 
cow herd treatment is rarely successful. The reason for this 
is that the germs of the disease are within the uterus and 
obviously in the pregnant animal cannot be reached with 
disinfectants. Very fashionable is the administration of 
phenol. It may be administered subcutaneously in doses 
of 10 c.c. of a 2 per cent, solution during the fifth to seventh 
months of pregnancy or it may be given with the food. A 
simple method of dosage is to make up a 3 per cent, solution 
of phenol, giving to each cow daily four ounces of the solution 
in the food. In ten days the dose can be increased to sixteen 
or even twenty-four ounces daily, provided this quantity is 
given in two or three feeds. 1 The fundamental principles 
underlying the control of infectious abortion are the same 
as for the eradication of any infectious disease, viz.: (a) 
The separation of the sick from the healthy, (b) The dis- 
infection of the premises, including the safe disposal of the 
dead, (c) The care of the sick. 



1 If gradually brought up to it cattle will stand enormous doses of phenol. 
A thousand-pound bull was given without injury in one day nearly 2 pounds 
of phenol divided into four doses. 



INFECTIOUS ABORTION 435 

(a) Cows which are about to abort or have aborted should 
be removed from the rest of the herd. If it is impossible to 
place them in a separate barn they should be placed in a 
separate part of the barn or at least one or two empty stalls 
left between them and their neighbors. 

(b) The premises should be thoroughly cleaned and dis- 
infected and the dead fetuses and afterbirths rendered 
innoxious by burning, boiling, or deep burial. As the herd 
bull is a transmitter it is advisable to disinfect his genital 
organs after each service by flushing out the sheath with 
some antiseptic (lysol 1 per cent.). The long hairs at the 
end of the sheath should be cut away and the hair around 
and in front of the sheath's opening removed with clippers. 

(c) Cows which have aborted and are still discharging 
should be treated by irrigating with an antiseptic solution 
(lysol 1 per cent.; creolin 2 per cent.). At first this may 
be done every other day, later every third day and afterward 
once or twice a week until all discharge ceases'. The cow 
should not be bred for about ten weeks after she has aborted 
and not then if still discharging. It is usually advisable to 
flush out her genital passages just before service with a 
bicarbonate of soda solution (2 per cent.). 

Prevention. — To prevent the introduction of the disease 
from the outside all newly purchased, pregnant animals 
should be isolated until after calving. No cows should be 
added to the herd with any abnormal vaginal discharge. 
No bull should be patronized unless he is known to be clean. 
Aborting herds should not be allowed to exhibit at fairs or 
cattle shows which is a common way of distributing the 
virus of the disease. 

Cows which have aborted should not be sold but kept 
in the herd until they become "ceased aborters," unless 
they fail to conceive when bred. Keeping together the 
original herd will lead to a more rapid eradication of the 
disease than if the infected animals are sold and replaced 
with new susceptible ones. 

Immunization. — Recent investigations by Bang point to 
the probability of immunizing cattle against infectious 
abortion. He employed repeated intravenous injections of 



436 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

living cultures in 10 c.c. doses two months before conception 
with the result that the fetus was carried to full term. The 
effect of the vaccination on the animal, however, was not 
favorable. Later attenuated cultures were used with partial 
success. In England experiments with 150 c.c. of a virulent 
culture injected two months before breeding gave encourag- 
ing results. 

INFECTIOUS GRANULAR VAGINITIS OF CATTLE. 

Colpitis Granulosa Infectiosa Bovum. 

Definition. — Infectious granular vaginitis is a disease of 
cattle characterized by catarrhal inflammation of, and the 
presence of peculiar nodules in, the vaginal mucosa. 

Occurrence. — The disease is widely distributed in the 
United States. In some communities nearly every dairy 
herd is infected. It is also very prevalent in England and 
on the continent of Europe. As the disorder tends to prevent 
conception and in some cases induces abortion (?) it attains 
great economic importance. 

Eti61ogy. — The cause seems to be a specific streptococcus 
which is Gram-negative. 

Natural Infection. — The disease is spread by the bull 
during the act of coitus. It may also be disseminated by 
contact of healthy with infected cows. Stable litter, 
utensils, syringes, etc., or even the hands of attendants 
contaminated with infectious vaginal discharge, are impor- 
tant factors of spread. The disease, therefore, is not confined 
to cows, but attacks heifers, calves and even males. In the 
bull the mucous membrane lining the sheath, external surface 
of the penis, or even the urethra becomes infected which 
accounts for the rapid dissemination of the disease in a cow 
herd or community (community bull). Horses, sheep, and 
swine are immune to infection. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation from natural infec- 
tion is usually three to five days. A minimum period of one 
day is recorded. The first symptoms are those of an acute, 
purulent colpitis with congestion, swelling, and sensitiveness 



INFECTIOUS GRANULAR VAGINITIS OF CATTLE 437 

of the mucosa of the vagina, accompanied by some muco- 
purulent discharge. Later there appear on the lateral sur- 
faces of the vagina and in the neighborhood of the clitoris 
a number of small, firm nodules or granules about the 
size of a hemp seed. At first they are dark red, but later 
become paler (enlarged lymph follicles). Concomitant with 
the granular eruption occurs an odorless, mucopurulent, or 
purulent vaginal discharge, which soils the vulva and the 
tail, where it dries to brownish crusts. The general condition 
of the animal is not much disturbed. In about one month 
the symptoms of acute inflammation subside, the discharge 
becomes more mucous, and the granules fade to light red 
or reddish-yellow. The process tends to extend forward 
in the vagina and may enter the uterus, causing endometritis. 
Sterility and abortion (infectious abortion) are apt to result. 

Diagnosis. — The recognition depends upon the contagious 
character of the disease and the characteristic appearance of 
the granules which do not break down to form pustules or 
ulcers. In the vaginal mucous membrane of perfectly healthy 
cows a few enlarged lymph follicles may be found. Therefore 
conclusions should not be arrived at hastily. In infectious 
abortion the lymph follicles may also become swollen but, as 
a rule, the nodules are larger, more discrete and less numerous. 
From vesicular exanthema of cattle infectious granular 
vaginitis is distinguished by the fact that no vesicles, pustules 
or ulcefs occur, the general condition is not usually dis- 
turbed and the bull is also pronouncedly affected (vesicles 
and ulcers in the sheath and on the penis; mucopurulent 
discharge from the urethra) . Furthermore, coital exanthema 
occurs also in the horse, sheep, and swine. 

Course. — The course is prolonged, the disease usually last- 
ing for weeks or months. As an attack does not produce 
immunity, reinfection commonly occurs. As a general 
proposition, infectious granular vaginitis is a stubborn dis- 
ease, which unless treated promptly in the early stages 
becomes a most obstinate malady. 

Treatment. — Treatment consists in a thorough cleansing 
of the affected genital passages with disinfectants which 
are not too irritant. The disinfection of the premises should 



438 CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

also be made. Where feasible a separation of the infected 
from the non-infected should be practised. The vagina may 
be flushed out with a lukewarm solution of bicarbonate of 
soda (2 per cent.) or lysol solution (1 per cent.) Vaginal 
tampons made of gauze impregnated with some antiseptic 
in fluid, ointment, or powder form are considered more 
serviceable than mere irrigations, as the antiseptic is kept 
in longer contact with the inflamed part. Success does not 
depend, however, so much upon the disinfectant used as the 
thoroughness of its application. Bulls may be treated as 
recommended in infectious abortion. 

Prevention. — Prevention is accomplished by practically 
the same means suggested for infectious abortion. 



CHAPTER VI. 
INFECTIOUS DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA. 

PIROPLASMOSES. 

Definition. — Piroplasms are one-celled protozoa which 
assume various shapes, some of them pear-, some round-, 
and some ring-shaped. When introduced into the body of a 
susceptible animal they enter the red blood corpuscles which 
cells they destroy, leading to anemia, hemoglobinemia, and 
icterus. Piroplasms are transmitted from the infected to the 
susceptible animal by insects known as ticks. In the tick 
they probably pass through an evolutionary stage. The most 
important pathogenic piroplasms and the piroplasmoses they 
produce are the following: 

(a) Piroplasma bigeminum, causing Texas fever. 

(b) Piroplasma parvum, causing East African fever of 
cattle. 

(c) Piroplasma equi, producing biliary fever of horses. 

(d) Piroplasma ovis, causing so-called malarial fever of 
sheep. 

(e) Anaplasma marginaie, producing gall sickness of 
cattle. 

Relationship of the Tick to Piroplasmosis . — Animals become 
infected when on pasture from being bitten by ticks. These 
insects, of which there are a great many varieties, belong to 
the group Ixodinse and the family Ixodidee. From a patho- 
logical standpoint the most important belong to the genus 
boophilus and the genus ixodes. The ticks become fully 
developed either on the animal which serves as host (Texas 
fever) or they leave the host as nymphs (East Coast fever), 
or both as larvse and nymphs (European piroplasmosis). 
The most important varieties are the following: 

(a) Ixodes ricinus (European piroplasmosis). 



440 INFECTIOUS DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA 

(b) Boophilus (or margaropus) annulatus (American, 
Australian, East Asian and South Europe piroplasmoses) . 

(c) Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (East Coast fever). 

(d) Dermacentor reticulatus (biliary fever). 

(e) Rhipicephalus bursa (malarial fever of sheep). 
Texas Fever (Piroplasmosis of Cattle. Southern Cattle 

Fever) .—Definition.— Texas fever is a specific blood disease 
of cattle, due to the protozoon Piroplasma bigeminum, and 
characterized by fever and hemoglobinuria. The causal 
germ is transmitted by ticks. 

Occurrence. — The disease is indigenous to districts in- 
fested with certain varieties of the cattle tick. In the United 
States Texas fever exists permanently in the Southern States. 
In the North, due to the cold winters which kill the ticks, 
only sporadic outbreaks take place in the summer season, 
the infection being carried from the South by ticky cattle. 
Native Southern cattle are tolerant to the disease, but 
Northern cattle brought South are very susceptible. The 
disease also occurs in Australia, South America, India and 
throughout Europe (different types) . Before the recognition 
as a carrier of the infection, and the consequent establish- 
ment of a Texas fever quarantine line across the United 
States, the disease practically prevented the interchanging 
of Northern and Southern cattle. 

Etiology. — The cause of Texas fever is the protozoon 
Piroplasma bigeminum. The transmitter of the infection 
is the cattle tick of which there are several varieties. In 
the United States the Boophilus annulatus is the carrier; 
in Europe the Ixodes ricinus, in South America and Australia 
the Boophilus argentinus and australis, and in South Africa 
the Boophilus decoloratus and appendiculatus. 

The Piroplasma bigeminum is found in the red blood 
corpuscles during the fever stage of the disease. They are 
pear-shaped or round and usually occur in pairs. Depending 
upon the number of protozoa introduced, the type of the 
disease may be severe (acute) or mild (chronic). During 
the height of the Texas fever season (late in August, early in 
September) the acute form prevails and earlier than August 
and later than September the milder, chronic type is met 
with. 



PIROPLASMOSES 441 

The blood of an ox containing the piroplasm is virulent 
when injected into susceptible cattle (subcutaneous, intra- 
vascular, intraperitoneally) , but feeding such blood fails to 
produce the disease. The parasite will remain virulent in a 
recovered animal for years. 

How Texas Fever is Spread. — As noted, the cattle tick is 
the carrier of the causal protozoon. As far as is known it is 
the only carrier. These ticks are essentially parasitic; they 
cannot attain full development unless they have access to 
cattle. Their life history is important, as the control and 
eradication of the tick is naturally followed by a cessation 
of the disease. The life history is simple: A pregnant female 
falls to the ground from the skin of an ox and soon lays 2 to 
4000 eggs. Depending upon the temperature and moisture 
present, in from two to six weeks a fully developed embryo 
breaks the egg shell and becomes free. When hatched the 
little seed tick is a very active, six legged, spider-like insect 
which crawls up the grass blades and lies in wait for an ox, 
to the skin of which it attaches itself. The larval tick can 
grow only when on cattle. In moist soil, leaves, etc., it can 
remain alive, however, for many months, even living through 
the mild Southern winters, and be capable of infecting cattle 
the following spring. In the more rigorous Northern winter, 
however, it perishes. Once attached to the skin, the tick 
moults, attains sexual maturity, copulates and fills itself 
with the blood of its host. While withdrawing the blood of 
the host the causal protozoon is introduced and the infection 
brought about. 

Susceptible cattle placed in tick-infested pastures thus 
become infected. This is commonly observed when susceptible 
cattle are turned on the usually tick-infested Southern pasture 
or are placed in Northern pastures or enclosures in which 
tick-laden Southern cattle have been grazing or kept. In 
permanently tick-infested districts the native cattle are 
wholly or partially immune. If they contract the disease 
at all the attack is usually mild. One attack of Texas fever 
confers a relative immunity, but the blood of an immune 
animal remains virulent for several years. The disease can 
therefore be spread by an immune or recovered animal, 
provided the purveying tick is present. 



442 INFECTIOUS DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA 

Symptoms. — After a period of incubation of eight to ten 
days following infestation with ticks, symptoms of fever 
appear. The temperature ranges from 104.9° to 108° F., 
the patient is dull, stupid (in rarer instances may show 
excitement), the muzzle dry and hot and the appetite is 
impaired or fails. Quite often the patients assume unnatural 
attitudes when standing or lying. The mucous membranes 
are icteric, pulse rapid, breathing dyspneic, bowels consti- 
pated and the feces, which later becomes softer, tinged with 
blood and bile. On the skin of the scrotum (udder), inner 
surface of the thighs, escutcheon and sometimes over the 
whole body ticks may be felt and seen. Toward the end of the 
attack, and especially marked in fatal cases, is the appear- 
ance of hemoglobinuria, the urine assuming a claret-wine 
color. The blood is anemic (number of red corpuscles sinks 
from eight to less than three million), poikilocytes appear 
and numbers of pear-shaped or round protozoa can be seen 
in the red blood corpuscles. 

Necropsy. — In acute cases the condition of the cadaver is 
usually good, but where the course has been protracted it is 
emaciated. Ticks are found on the skin, especially in the 
region of the scrotum (udder) , inner surface of the thighs and 
escutcheon. The subcutaneous tissue is usually anemic and 
icteric. The spleen is enlarged, often weighing six or seven 
pounds and its parenchyma has become a dark, purple colored, 
disintegrated mass. The liver is enlarged, has lost its natural 
brown color and is yellow on its surface. When incised it 
shows a mahogany-brown color; from fatty degeneration 
the color is still lighter yellow. The gall-bladder is distended 
with flaky bile mixed with mucus of a viscid, stringy con- 
sistency. The urinary bladder is filled with red urine, the 
shades varying from pale red to a deep red. The kidneys 
are hyperemic, the lungs are intact and the serous coverings 
of the heart show ecchymoses. 

Diagnosis. — In the United States Texas fever might be 
confused with anthrax, black-leg and hemorrhagic septi- 
cemia. The presence of the ticks (in non-tick-infested 
districts) on the skin and the microscopic examination 
of the blood should clear away all doubt. Clinically, the 



PIROPLASMOSES 443 

symptoms of general anemia are very suggestive of Texas 
fever. In anthrax anemia does not develop. Black-leg 
attacks only young cattle which show characteristic, crepitant 
swellings and no splenic enlargement. The course of hemor- 
rhagic septicemia is usually very rigorous and rapid (die in a 
few hours), no ticks are present, the spleen is not enlarged 
and microscopically the bipoled bacteria are visible between 
the blood corpuscles. 

Course. — The course of the disease is varied. Acute cases 
(height of the Texas fever season) die in three to five days. 
Subacute cases may linger for three weeks and terminate 
fatally. Chronic cases often recover after weeks of illness. 
In calves the disease is often benign, ending in recovery. As 
noted, outbreaks during very hot weather are more malignant 
than when cooler. Chronic cases are subject to relapses. 
The mortality is from 5 to 90 per cent. 

Treatment. — The patient should be removed at once to a 
non -tick -infested, shady place and if feasible the ticks 
removed from them (hand-picking, antiparasitic agents). 
Internal medication avails little. Much recommended is 
quinine (3ij - v per os). Intravenous injections of formalin 
(100 to 500 grams of a 1 per cent, solution), followed by lysol 
internally (1$ — lysol 5ij; spiritus frumenti giij; aqua Oj; 
M. D. S.; hourly one tablespoonful until urine becomes 
clear) have given some results. Trypanroth given sub- 
cutaneously or intravenously (up to 200 c.c. of a 1.5 per cent, 
solution; make up fresh in distilled water) will reduce the 
number of parasites but usually only temporarily. 

Prevention. — The prevention of Texas fever depends upon 
the eradication of the carrier-tick. Once a field is rid of these 
insects, non-tick-bearing cattle may be turned into it with 
impunity. The task of ridding the United States of cattle 
ticks is now well under way. In the Southern States an area, 
formerly tick-infected, larger than two ordinary States has 
already been freed. Various methods of eradication are in 
vogue. Which one to employ will depend upon local con- 
ditions. The following briefly describes the most practical 
methods : 



444 INFECTIOUS DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA 

(a) Hand Picking. — When only a few cattle are kept on 
the farm or in the case of ox teams, removing the ticks by 
picking, currying or brushing three times a week from May 
till December effectually protects the pastures from rein- 
festation with pregnant females and also betters the con- 
dition of the cattle themselves. 

(b) Spraying with crude petroleum or some coal-tar dip 
(5 per cent.) from May till December serves the same 
purpose in small herds. Sometimes where no spraying 
mechanism is at hand, the fluids are applied with sponges, 
brushes or with a syringe. 

(c) Dipping.— In large herds dipping is the most practical 
method of ridding the cattle of ticks. In many tick-infested 
districts community dips made of concrete are erected to 
serve a number of farmers. Baumont crude petroleum is 
used for the bath. The cattle should not be dipped until 
after the shedding of the winter hair coat. If they are to be 
shipped north of the quarantine line, the cattle must stand 
eight days to drain thoroughly. 

(d) "Soiling Method." — The ticky cattle are placed in a 
tick-free pen for three weeks. At the end of this period they 
are removed to a second tick-free pen and kept in it a further 
three weeks. If at the end of this time they are found free 
from ticks they may be placed on a non-infested pasture. If 
not, they are returned to a pen for two weeks longer. The 
success of this plan depends upon the fact that all of the ticks 
drop off the cattle while in the pens and as the animals are 
removed to a new pen before a new crop of seed ticks can 
hatch, no opportunity for reinfection is offered. Obviously 
the pens must be thoroughly disinfected before using again. 

freeing Pastures from Ticks. — There are several methods 
of eradicating ticks from infested pastures. 

1. If the pasture be cultivated for one year and all ticky 
cattle kept out of it, it will become rid of ticks. 

2. Burning ticky pastures each spring and fall will keep 
them free so long as no ticky cattle are permitted on them 
in the interim. 

3. Early in September the cattle are moved from the 
infested pasture and cleaned of ticks. They are then 



PIROPLASMOSES 445 

placed on a non-infested pasture and all contact with ticky 
animals prevented. The original pasture is kept free from 
animals until the following April when it will be free from 
ticks. In the eight months during which the field has not 
been used for pasture the seed ticks which hatch in the fall 
have died of starvation, having bad no access to cattle. 

4. Feed-lot Method. — A field of corn or other forage crop 
is fenced off into three different enclosures. Around each 
enclosure a furrow is plowed and a board placed so as to 
prevent the escape of ticks. The cattle are placed in this 
field for a period of sixty days, spending twenty days in the 
first enclosure, twenty in the second and twenty in the third. 
At the end of this period they are free from ticks, as they were 
not allowed to remain in any one of the enclosures long enough 
for reinfestation. In moving the cattle from one enclosure 
to another they should be driven over plowed ground and 
after they are taken out the furrow should be sprayed with 
crude petroleum. Obviously the cattle should not be fed 
hay nor given water from tick-infested pastures. 

Protective Inoculation.— Susceptible cattle shipped to 
tick-infested regions, especially animals from six to eighteen 
months old, may be immunized against Texas fever by one of 
the following methods: 

1. The animals are confined in a tick-free enclosure and 
a small number of (25 to 50) virulent seed ticks placed upon 
them. A month later a greater number of seed ticks (2 to 
400) is used. This will often produce a non-fatal type of 
Texas fever which renders the animal immune to natural 
infection. 

2. The susceptible young cattle are injected subcuta- 
neously with the defibrinated blood of a native calf or a 
recovered adult animal. Usually eight to ten days after the 
injection the animal develops symptoms of anemia, hemo- 
globinuria and sometimes bloody diarrhea. Microscopically, 
the blood will show a great diminution of red blood corpuscles 
and will contain a few piroplasms. In eight to ten days these 
symptoms temporarily disappear but a month later usually 
a second reaction sets in which lasts only eight to ten days 
but is milder in type, the red blood corpuscles showing only 



44G INFECTIOUS DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA 

a few piroplasms of atypical form. If cattle so treated are 
two months later turned into infested pastures a large pro- 
portion of them will resist natural infection. Some of them, 
however, will show symptoms of fever which is usually 
followed by recovery. The losses from this method of 
immunization are about 10 per cent. Some animals of low 
resistance die during the process of immunization. This 
method seems more controllable than the former one and is 
now much employed to prevent losses among imported 
susceptible cattle. 

Quarantine Line. — The United States Government has 
established a quarantine line which extends from the seacoast 
east of Norfolk, Virginia, across the country to the coast of 
California near San Francisco. This line is a very irregular 
one and is varied from time to time as counties just south of 
it are freed from ticks. Roughly, at present, the line extends 
through the centre of Virginia, westward along the north 
boundary of North Carolina, through the State of Tennessee, 
along the north boundary of Arkansas to the centre of the 
north boundary of Oklahoma, where it drops suddenly 
taking a southwesterly course until it reaches the Mexican 
line, along the north border of which it proceeds westward 
until it reaches the east boundary of California which it 
follows north as far as the latitude of San Francisco where 
it again turns westward to the coast. 

Piroplasmosis of European Cattle {Infectious Hemoglobin- 
uria of the Ox. "Red Water' 1 ) . — Definition. — Piroplasmosis of 
European cattle is an infectious blood disease very similar 
to if not identical with American Texas fever. The disorder 
is transmitted by a variety of the cattle tick. 

Occurrence. — This piroplasmosis is generally distributed 
throughout Europe (Germany, Russia, Finland, Rumania, 
etc.), where it assumes usually an enzootic form, outbreaks 
occurring most commonly among cattle on pasture in the 
spring and summer months. From tick-infested fcrage, 

1 The "red water" of British Columbia and of the Northwestern United 
States, according to Hadwin, is not due to protozoa, but to poisoning with 
oxalic acid from the wet, undrained and infertile pastures. The disorder, 
which is very fatal, usually occurs only among adult cattle. 



PIROPLASMOSES 447 

stable-fed cattle are occasionally infected. Cows and year- 
lings are most susceptible. The disease also attacks sheep 
and goats. Badly tick-infested pastures are permanent 
sources of infection, particularly wet woods pastures and 
boggy fields which adjoin brush and timber lands. Native 
calves are more resistant than adults and native cattle with- 
stand the attack better than imported animals. One attack 
does not produce permanent immunity, as the same animals 
may repeatedly suffer from the disorder. 

Etiology. — The cause of the disease is the protozoon 
Piroplasma bigeminum, which is transmitted by the European 
cattle tick, the Ixodes ricinus (I. redubius), which is harbored 
in grass, brush, bushes, etc., especially on low swampy lands. 
The life history of this tick is somewhat different from that of 
the American cattle tick. The female does not lay so many 
eggs and the hatching period is longer (six weeks). The 
larvae leave the cattle three to five days after attaching 
themselves to the skin and on the ground develop intp 
nymphs in about four weeks. They then reattach them- 
selves to the skin of an animal, remain three to five days, 
drop to the ground and in the following eight weeks develop 
to sexually mature ticks which again attach themselves to a 
host, suck its blood and copulate. Therefore the larvae, 
nypmhs and sexually developed ticks are capable of carrying 
the infection. The time which lapses between the laying of 
the eggs and the dropping off of the pregnant female is 
about nineteen weeks under average conditions. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is ten days. The 
first symptoms are high fever (106° F.), which is soon followed 
by diarrhea. About the second day the characteristic hemo- 
globinuria appears and the urine becomes red. The shade 
of red may vary from a light claret-wine to a dark tar-like 
color. The patient rapidly becomes anemic and the mucous 
membranes icteric. In some cases there is marked weakness 
of the hindquarters. The blood of the animal is thin, very 
dark colored, and its serum is stained red (hemoglobinemia) . 
Microscopically (blood drawn from an ear vein), pear-shaped, 
round or rod-shaped protozoa are seen in the red corpuscles 
with proper staining. 



448 INFECTIOUS DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA 

Prognosis. — If the cattle are immediately taken off the 
infested pastures and all ticks removed from them recovery 
usually follows in about two weeks, provided the attack has 
been acute. On the other hand, where the animals are left 
on the infested fields or where the outbreak has been very 
severe, the patients die, the disease assuming a chronic form 
with symptoms of anemia, emaciation, and cachexia. 

Treatment. — The removal of the cattle from the infested 
pastures and the eradication of the ticks (oil dips) are 
essential. Internally individual patients are treated symp- 
tomatically. 

Prophylaxis. — Tick-infested pastures should be avoided. 
Tile draining and tilling such fields are indicated. Where 
this is not possible the brush should be cut off and the fields 
burned over as recommended in Texas fever. Dipping the 
ticky cattle is indicated. 

Protective Inoculation. — The value of protective inocula- 
tion (3 c.c. of fresh calf's blood) is still in dispute. In some 
outbreaks the inoculation material seemed too weak and in 
others too strong. 

East African Coast Fever (Rhodesian Red Water). — Defi- 
nition. — East African fever is a form of piroplasmosis in 
cattle due to the Piroplasma parvum. Contrary to Texas 
fever it cannot be artificially transmitted by blood. 

Occurrence. — The disease occurs along the East African 
coast where it has existed for a long time in a latent form. 
It has spread into the interior and has caused great losses 
among the cattle of Transvaal and Rhodesia. 

Etiology. — The disease is caused by the Piroplasma parvum, 
a small rod-like protozoon. Several varieties of ticks, which 
in the earlier stages of their development have sucked the 
blood of infected cattle (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, R. 
Evertsi, sinus, nidens, and capensis) are responsible for its 
spread. The parasite does not pass through the egg as in the 
case of Texas fever, and the disease cannot be transmitted 
from immune animals to healthy cattle. The infection takes 
place only among young cattle when on pasture. Adult 
animals are immune. As noted, the disease cannot be trans- 
mitted by the blood, although transmission has been accom- 



PIROPLASMOSES 449 

plished to susceptible animals by introducing intra-abdomin- 
ally large pieces of spleen. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is ten to twelve 
days. The first symptoms are those of high fever, salivation, 
bloody diarrhea, swelling of the lymph glands of the throat, 
emaciation, and weakness. Anemia and hemoglobinuria are 
usually not present. The appetite of the patient may 
be retained until the last stages. 

Prognosis. — The disease is very malignant, the mortality 
among young cattle reaching 60 to 90 per cent. 

Prophylaxis. — Is similar to that of Texas fever and depends 
upon the eradication of the tick. The value of blood and 
serum inoculations is very questionable. 

Piroplasmosis of the Horse (Biliary Fever). — Definition. — 
The piroplasmosis of horses is an infectious blood disease 
which occurs chiefly in Italy, Russia, and also in Africa and 
India. It is due to the Piroplasma equi. 

Occurrence. — The disease occurs so far as reported only 
in the countries noted above. In Russia it is most common 
among young native horses which run on low swampy 
pastures. Aged horses imported from non infected localities 
are, however, susceptible. 

Etiology. — The disease is due to the Piroplasma equi, a small 
polymorphous parasite found in the red blood corpuscles. 
The carriers of the infection are several varieties of ticks. 
In Russia the Dermacentor reticulatus and in Africa the 
Rhipicephalus Evertsi are the carriers. Besides horses, 
asses, and mules, zebras and quaggas take the disease. 
The disease may be transmitted by blood from immune 
horses. While one attack produces immunity this immunity 
is readily overcome by anything which decreases the resist- 
ance of the animal (hard work, other diseases). Imported 
horses are much more susceptible than natives. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is about fourteen 
days, after which there develops a remittent fever with great 
heart weakness, rapid pulse, icteric discoloration of the 
mucous membranes, hemorrhage from the conjunctiva, 
great mental depression, dyspnea, constipation followed by 
diarrhea, emaciation, polyuria and yellow discoloration of 
29 



450 INFECTIOUS DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA 

the urine. Microscopically, the protozoa are found in the 
red blood corpuscles. The course of the disease is very 
varied. In acute cases death may result in two to five days. 
In chronic cases the course is two to four weeks or it may 
extend over many months. 

Diagnosis. — From horse sickness piroplasmosis of horses 
is usually distinguished by the presence of icterus and the 
absence of edematous swellings. A positive diagnosis can 
only be made by finding the piroplasma in the red blood 
corpuscles. 

Treatment. — No successful medicinal treatment has been 
found. As a prophylactic measure, keeping the animals 
off infested pastures during the hot months is recommended. 
The importation of solipeds should be made only during the 
cold season and confined to adult animals. Protective 
inoculation with 1 c.c. of infected colt blood seems to be 
successful. 

Piroplasmosis of Sheep. — Definition. — This is an infectious 
blood disease of sheep occurring mostly in the bottom lands 
along the Danube River in Rumania. Low swampy pastures 
are also infectious. Following floods the disease is observed 
to a marked extent. 

Etiology. — The cause is the Piroplasma ovis which very 
closely resembles the Piroplasma bigeminum. The disease 
is spread by the tick Rhipicephalus bursa. The period of 
incubation is eight to ten days. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are those of fever, languor, 
anemia, icterus, hemoglobinuria, hematuria, and bloody 
diarrhea. Death usually results in two to Hve days. Oc- 
casionally the disease assumes a milder form and manifests 
itself by symptoms of bowel catarrh, fever and anemia. One 
attack produces immunity. Transmission by blood can be 
made. The mortality is 50 to 60 per cent, of the adult sheep, 
and all young lambs (three to four months) die. Convales- 
cence consumes several weeks. 

Treatment.— Internally , sulphate of quinine (gr. viij 
twice daily) and Glauber salts (Sj-ij) are recommended. 
Prevention consists in keeping the sheep from infected 
pastures. 



TRYPANOSOMIASIS 451 



TRYPANOSOMIASIS. 

Dourine. 1 — Definition. — Dourine is a specific infectious 
trypanosomiasis of breeding horses and asses, spread by 
coitus. It is characterized by two distinct clinical stages, 
viz., a primary stage which is a local disease of the genital 
organs, and a secondary stage of general infection, which 
induces nervous symptoms (polyneuritis), skin lesions, and 
emaciation. 

Occurrence. — Dourine probably originated in the Orient, 
from where it spread with the Arabian horse to Europe. 
It is widely prevalent in Russia, Rumania, Spain, and 
Algiers. The disease has invaded Germany, Austria and 
France and Switzerland from time to time but vigorous 
veterinary police regulations have held it in abeyance. 
The United States has witnessed sporadic outbreaks, the 
infection evidently spreading from imported European 
stallions. In 1885 it was reported in Illinois, in 1892 in 
Nebraska, in 1901 in South Dakota (Pine Ridge and Rosebud 
Indian reservations), in 1903 in Iowa and in 1911 again in 
Iowa. Since this date no further outbreaks have been noted. 
By the vigorous methods of suppression employed by the 
United States Bureau of Animal Industry, all of the above 
cited outbreaks were effectually controlled and the disease 
eventually stamped out. As dourine is a chronic disease, 
often difficult to diagnose and usually fatal, which spreads 
readily among breeding horses, its economic importance is 
great. 

Etiology. — The cause of dourine is the protozoon Try- 
panosoma equiperdum discovered and described in 1896 
by Rouget. In the United States the presence of this para- 
site was first demonstrated in 1911 (Iowa outbreak) by 
Dr. John R. Mohler of the Bureau of Animal Industry 
which conclusively established the identity of the American 
with the dourine of Europe, Asia and Africa. 

Natural Infection. — Susceptible mares are infected by dis- 
eased stallions during copulation, the urethral discharges 

1 From the Arabic, meaning unclean- 



452 INFECTIOUS DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA 

containing the causal trypanosomes. Likewise a mare 
suffering from the disorder may infect a stallion while he is 
serving her. A transmission by the stallion from a diseased 
to a healthy mare, without the stallion himself becoming 
infected, also occurs. The trypanosomes penetrate the 
intact mucous membranes of the genital tract and enter the 
blood. Insect transmission is probable but so rare, if it 
occur at all, as to be negligible. Dogs, cats, rabbits, rats, 
white mice, and sheep have been successfully inoculated. 
Dogs die in two or three months after becoming greatly 
emaciated. Rabbits emaciate and die in two to eight months, 
while white mice succumb to general septicemia in three to 
five days following intraperitoneal inoculation. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation varies from five to 
thirty days or longer (probably several months). Following 
the incubative period the local symptoms of the first stage 
appear. 

Primary Stage. — In stallions there is swelling of the penis 
first noticed in the glans but later involving the whole 
organ. The prepuce becomes edematous, but is not sensitive 
to the touch. The edema may involve the ventral abdominal 
wall and scrotum. The testes may also swell. From the 
urethra is discharged a thin, yellow serum-like fluid which 
drips away more or less continuously (in European outbreaks 
the urethral discharge is thicker, more purulent). In three 
or four days small vesicles appear on the penis. In twelve to 
thirty-six hours the vesicles erupt, discharging a thin, yellow 
fluid, leaving behind raw ulcers which tend to coalesce with 
those adjacent. The ulcers heal rapidly but leave behind 
white, non-pigmented, permanent scars. The stallion may 
show stranguria and increased sexual desire (frequent 
erections). They may attempt to cover mares but usually 
full erection of the penis fails. The preputial and inguinal 
lymph glands become swollen. In some cases abscess of 
the testicle with sloughing has been noted. In mares the 
earlier symptoms may be easily overlooked (range horses). 
There is edema of the vulva, constant erection of the clitoris, 
and a mucopurulent discharge which soils the tail and 
buttocks. The discharge is similar to that from the penis 



TR YPANOSOMIASIS 453 

of the male. In a short time papules, vesicles, and ulcers 
appear on the external skin of the vulva and on the vaginal 
mucous membrane. The ulcers, although angry looking at 
first, heal readily, but leave behind permanent, puckered, 
pitted scars lighter (white in skin) in color than the sur- 
rounding skin or mucosa. The mares show estrum-like 
symptoms (switch tail, urinate frequently). Sometimes 
edema of the udder and ventral wall of abdomen is present. 

In some cases the above-described local symptoms may be 
mild and remain unobserved. In such cases the general 
symptoms of the second stage of the disease are noted first 
and the traces of the local stage then looked for. 

Secondary Stage. — The second stage affects stallions and 
mares alike. Sometimes several months may elapse between 
stages. Anything which tends to lower the resistance of 
the patient (exposure, fatigue, breeding) may, however, 
precipitate the second stage. In European outbreaks the 
first symptom of the second stage is the appearance of urti- 
caria-like swellings (so-called plaques) of about the size of 
a silver dollar, usually round or half-round in form with 
the centres depressed. The hairs over the swellings are 
commonly erect. When punctured a blood-stained serum 
exudes from the wound. The favorite seats of the plaques 
are the croup (near tail root), chest wall, neck, under the 
belly and chest. The plaques usually disappear in one to 
eight days to be followed by a new crop. The alternate 
appearance and disappearance of the plaques may continue 
for several months and form a very characteristic symptom of 
dourine. In some of the American outbreaks, however, no 
plaques were observed (overlooked?). There is generally 
pruritis, causing the patient to rub and scratch the skin. 

Nervous Symptoms. — The nervous disturbance of the 
second stage consist largely in motor paralysis principally 
of the peripheral motor nerve (polyneuritis, perineuritis). 
The following nerves are most commonly affected: Facial 
nerve, producing symptoms of unilateral facial paralysis; 
the (recurrent) inferior laryngeal nerve, leading to roaring; 
the femoral nerve, causing symptoms or crural paralysis; 
the great sciatic nerve, to a swinging-leg lameness, the limb 



454 INFECTIOUS DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA 

being dragged; peroneal nerve, causing knuckling in the hind 
fetlock and stumbling behind; the obturator nerve, to spread- 
ing of the gait behind with abduction of the limbs; oculo- 
motor nerve, to paralysis of the upper eyelid ; pudic nerve, to 
paralysis of the penis. Naturally not all of these paralyses are 
noted in any one case, but in practically every case some of 
them, especially those involving the hindlimbs, will be 
observed. Associated with the peripheral paralysis symp- 
toms of hyperesthesia are often present. Many patients are 
extremely sensitive when the skin is touched or pricked with a 
pin. In some cases if the back be stroked the horse suddenly 
arches it downwardly and seeks to evade the examiner. 
Quite frequently, during rest, the animal may show cramp- 
like contractions of the muscles of a leg, holding the member 
in the air (as in "straw cramp"). Not infrequently atrophy 
of paralyzed muscular groups follows. While in stallions 
the genesic instinct is well preserved, on account of the 
partial paralysis of the penis which prevents complete 
erection of the organ, they are unable to serve mares. 

Spinal paralysis is not a common complication, although 
some patients become completely paralyzed behind. 

An important symptom of the secondary stage is marked 
emaciation. In some instances the patients emaciate to 
skeletons, losing fully 50 per cent, of their normal weight and 
presenting a peculiar tucked-up appearance of the flanks. 
As further symptoms may be noted swelling of the lymph 
glands in the throat and inguinal regions and decubital 
gangrene of the skin. Occasionally, nasal catarrh, con- 
junctivitis, fibrinous pneumonia, arthritis and tendovagin- 
itis, iritis and albuminuria are observed. The temperature 
often remains normal throughout the attack, although an 
atypical fever is not infrequent. The appetite of the patient 
is usually well preserved. 

Diagnosis. — In isolated cases with uncertain history the 
diagnosis from the clinical symptoms alone is often difficult. 
In the United States where no other trypanosome disease 
among horses is known, the microscopic determination 'of the 
Trypanosoma equiperdum is clinching. However, in our 
climate this protozoon, which exists in the urethral or vaginal 



TR YPANOSOMIASIS 455 

discharge, plaques, and edematous swellings, is very scarce 
and difficult to find. Negative evidence, therefore, in this 
regard would not be convincing. Of diagnostic value are 
the plaques, nerve symptoms (paralysis), and the marked 
emaciation of the patient. All breeding horses and asses 
showing these should be considered suspects. Animal in- 
oculations (dog, mouse, rabbit) may also be employed. 
When in the primary stage dourine might be confused with 
coital exanthema which sometimes looks strikingly like it. 
However, this is a benign disease, healing readily and 
leaving behind no permanent scars and is followed by neither 
plaques nor nerve symptoms. Traumatic lesions of the 
vagina from excessive copulation (range mares) is character- 
ized by wounds and ecchymoses (purple patches) rather than 
by vesicles and ulcers. The mallein, guinea-pig or comple- 
ment-fixation tests suffice to differentiate between glanders 
of the sexual organs and dourine. Paralysis due to infectious 
anemia, forage poisoning, etc., affects geldings as well as 
stallions and mares. 

Course. — In northern latitudes the course is chronic; in 
southern usually acute. In some cases the second stage, 
beginning with the development of the cutaneous plaques 
follows closely the first stage. The nerve symptoms 
(paralyses) may not develop, however, until weeks or months 
later. The duration of the whole attack may extend over 
one or more years. Obviously any factor which reduces 
the resistance of the patient (poor care, insufficient food, 
breeding, etc.), will shorten the duration. Exacerbations 
and remissions during the course are common. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is bad. Fully 50 to 80 per cent, 
of the animals attacked die. A few recover when in the 
first stage of the disease, the second stage failing to de- 
velop. It is doubtful whether cases in the second stage ever 
recover. 

Treatment. — Internal medicinal treatment (arsenic, atoxyl, 
bichlorid of mercury, intravenous injections of tartar emetic, 
arsenophenylglycin, cacodylate of soda, etc.), has been 
tried with indifferent success in countries permanently 
infected with dourine. In the United States no attempt to 



456 INFECTIOUS DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA 

treat the patients should be made. All affected animals 
should be killed. In some instances the castration of stallions 
suffering from the first stages of the disease has been followed 
by recovery. Apparently cured animals can harbor virulent 
trypanosomes for months. All suspected and true outbreaks 
should be promptly reported to the State authorities. 

Surra. — Definition.— Surra is a specific blood disease of 
Asiatic horses, mules, camels, and dogs, due to the Trypano- 
soma evansi, transmitted by biting insects. It is character- 
ized by high fever (early stages), edemas of the skin, urti- 
caria, petechias of the mucous membranes. Later the 
patients become anemic, weak, and emaciated. 

Occurrence. — Surra exists in Asiatic countries, and is a 
common disease in the Philippine Islands, where it affects 
horses and occasionally carabao and cattle causing consider- 
able losses. The disease is most prevalent in swampy dis- 
tricts in the hot months where horse flies abound. 

Etiology. — The Trypanosoma evansi, which is introduced 
into the blood of susceptible animals by species of horse flies 
(Tabanus tropicus, T. lineola, Stomoxys calcitrans). Cattle 
and zebras, which are only slightly susceptible to the disease, 
are virus carriers. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is four to thirteen 
days. The disease begins with fever (105.8° F.), which lasts 
four or five days, the hair coat becomes rough, the joints 
swell, and later edemas appear under the belly and in males 
in the prepuce. Petechia? appear in the mucous mem- 
branes (eye), followed by paleness, and in the latter stage the 
conjunctiva presents a marked grayish-white appearance. 
The fever usually becomes intermittent, the patient very 
anemic and notwithstanding good appetite loses flesh rapidly. 
In the blood the Trypanosoma evansi is found, especially 
in the beginning of a febrile attack. 

Course. — The course is usually one or two months, rarely 
does death ensue in one or two weeks. 

Prognosis. — Bad. Nearly all cases die. 

Treatment. — In permanently infected districts, arsenic 
(gr. x-xv daily for ten days in powder form as a bolus or 
electuary) has given good results. Atoxyl (Bj-v of a 4 



TRYPANOSOMIASIS 457 

per cent, solution subcutaneously) given at the same time 
with arsenic (gr. x-xv per os) was less successful. 

Prevention. — Ridding the infested districts of fly carriers 
(cutting brush, draining fields, tillage, cleanliness about 
stables) pasturing only at night when the flies do not swarm, 
applying agents to the skin to keep flies away (creolin, 
petroleum), and encouraging the growth of citronella grass 
are helpful. 

In non-infected localities quarantine should be established 
against animals from infected countries. The killing and 
cremation of all infected animals are indicated. By taking 
the temperatures frequently during fresh outbreaks, making 
blood examinations and animal inoculations (rats, mice) 
the animals harboring the trypanosomes may be identified 
and destroyed leading to the eradication of the disease in 
districts and countries where it has not yet gained a firm 
foothold. 

Nagana (Tsetse Disease). — Definition. — Nagana is an 
African trypanosomiasis of horses and cattle, more rarely 
in sheep, goats, and dogs, due to the Trypanosoma brucei 
and transmitted by the tsetse fly. In character it much 
resembles surra. 

Occurrence. — Nagana was formerly wide-spread in Central 
and South Africa, but of late years has grown less common 
(disappearance of virus-carrying game?). Low, swampy, 
river countries are most infectious. 

Etiology. — The Trypanosoma brucei, which is transmitted 
from animal to animal by the bite of the tsetse fly (Glossina 
morsitans) or other closely related flies (Gl. fusca, Gl. 
pallidipes, etc.). 

Symptoms.- — In horses the period of iucubation is two to 
ten days. The symptoms are high fever (104° to 105.8° F.); 
congestion of mucous membranes (eye) ; edematous swelling 
of conjunctiva (with profuse lacrimosis); throat, legs, 
under belly, prepuce (in males); the trypanosomes being 
found in the blood during the fever stages. Later the fever 
assumes an intermittent or remittent type, the patient 
becomes anemic (pale, icteric mucous membranes), emaciated 
and very weak, especially in hind parts, finally gets down 



458 INFECTIOUS DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA 

and dies of inanition. The appetite is well retained through- 
out the disease. In some cases keratitis, corneal abscess, 
iritis and blindness develop during the attack. Urticaria 
(plaques) may also be noted occasionally. 

Diagnosis. — Depends upon a knowledge of the pre valency 
of the disease in the district, the symptoms of remittent 
fever, edemas, emaciation and weakness (in spite of good 
appetite), and the demonstration of the trypanosomes in 
the lymph glands, blood and edematous swellings. When the 
microscopic findings are negative, dogs should be inoculated. 

Prevention. — Same as in Surra. 

Mai de Caderas. 1 — Definition. — Mai de Caderas is a 
South American disease of horses due to the Trypanosoma 
equinum. It is characterized by fever, paralysis of the 
hind parts, urticaria, edemas of pendent portions of the body, 
keratitis, anemia and emaciation. 

Occurrence. — The disease is found in Brazil, Batavia, 
Argentine, Paraguay, and on the islands of the delta of the 
Amazon. Like most trypanosomiasis, Mai de Caderas is 
found in swampy localities. In infected districts in Argentine 
the disease plays havoc with the horse industry. 

Etiology. — The cause of Mai de Caderas is the Trypano- 
soma equinum (T. elmassiana), which is very similar to the 
Trypanosoma brucei of nagana. 

The mode of transmission of the disease from animal to 
animal is as yet unsolved. Formerly horse flies (Stomoxys 
brava), tabanidea and even mosquitoes were accused. 

Doubt has been cast upon this assumption by the fact 
that a wire fence is sufficient to prevent the spread of the 
disease. It is probable that the disease is transmitted 
indirectly by the capybara (a large rodent). The capybaras 
are said to die in great numbers and are eaten by dogs, from 
which a spread to horses is assumed. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is about ten days. 
The most prominent symptom is weakness of the hind parts, 
loss of coordination, the hindlegs being dragged and the 
fetlocks knuckling over when walking. The patient rapidly 

1 Mai de Caderas, "hip disease," from a prominent symptom. 



COCCIDIOSIS 459 

emaciates and becomes so weak (paraparesis) that when 
down they rise from the ground with great difficulty. When 
standing the limbs are spread apart. Finally the patients 
remain down, show paralysis of the rectum (fecal stasis), 
relaxation of the anal sphincter, and incontinence of feces. 
The fever is atypical, urticaria-like swellings appear on the 
skin, and individual joints become swollen. Edemas of 
pendent parts of the body are not so common as in surra 
and nagana. Albuminuria and hematuria are not rare. 
Conjunctivitis and keratitis are common complications. 
The appetite is retained to the end. In acute cases the 
trypanosomes are found in the blood in numbers; in chronic 
cases their determination is only possible by inoculation of 
rats and mice. 

Course. — The course is usually one or two months; chronic 
cases may linger for months, the emaciation and paresis 
developing very gradually. 

Prognosis. — Bad. Nearly all cases die. 

Treatment. — No medicinal treatment is of value. Trypan- 
roth has been tried in experimental animals (mice) with some 
success. 

Prevention. — As a mode of transmission is still in doubt, 
well directed preventive measures are wanting. Keeping 
susceptible horses off low-lying undrained fields and killing 
the diseased animals are recommended. 



COCCIDIOSIS. 

Coccidial Dysentery of Cattle. Red Dysentery. 

Definition. — An inflammation of the intestines of cattle 
due to a coccidium and characterized by a bloody diarrhea. 

Occurrence. — The disease is found principally among 
young cattle on pasture, especially in wet seasons and during 
the months of June to September. As the disease assumes 
an enzootic or sometimes an epizootic form, affecting a large 
number of animals, and is not infrequently fatal, it assumes 
economic importance. 



460 INFECTIOUS DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA 

Etiology. — The cause is the Coccidium zuerni, which is 
found in the feces of sick animals as round or oval protozoa, 
varying in length from 10 to 25 microns. Under the micro- 
scope they are highly light refractive and unstained appear 
greenish-violet in color. 

Natural Infection. — Infection takes place through the 
digestive tract, the coccidia being taken up with water from 
pools and swamps and also probably with infested food. 
Occasionally infection occurs in barns, especially when damp 
and dirty. Young animals are much more susceptible than 
older ones which, however, are by no means immune. The 
disease is rarely seen in calves under six months, as they 
are seldom exposed to infested pastures. Cattle ranging 
from six months to two years of age are most often attacked. 

Necropsy. — The lesions are usually confined to the large 
bowel, especially its posterior portion. The mucosa is 
swollen, congested, often thrown into transverse folds (cor- 
rugated), partially denuded of its epithelium, and spotted 
with hemorrhages. Frequently masses of adherent epithe- 
lium hang in shreds from the eroded mucous membrane. 
The contents are a thin fluid, and vary in color from greenish 
to reddish gray or reddish brown. Sometimes blood-clots 
are mixed with them. Over the mucosa a yellowish or grayish 
fibrinous exudate is often noted. Due to secondary infection, 
the small intestines may show hemorrhagic inflammation 
or even necrosis. In the intestinal contents and mucosa 
(especially in the loose shreds) numbers of coccidia are found. 
The cadaver is usually anemic and emaciated. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation varies from one to 
three weeks. A number of young cattle on pasture may be 
simultaneously affected; more rarely a whole herd may 
develop symptoms in a single day. The principal symptom 
is a suddenly appearing diarrhea, the feces thin, copious, 
discharged with considerable tenesmus, and after a few hours 
streaked with blood. If the tenesmus is severe, prolapse of 
the rectum may result. In adult cattle the symptoms 
disappear in three or four days, and after showing capricious 
appetite for a time, recovery follows. In young animals, 
however, the condition gets worse, the feces becoming very 



COCCIDIOSIS 461 

fetid, admixed with clots and shreds of mucus — often ichorous 
in character. The patients are greatly depressed, have no 
appetite, rapidly emaciate, and show an uncertain, staggering 
gait. The pulse becomes increased and the temperature 
elevated. Death may occur within one to three days. 

Diagnosis. — The occurrence of the disease among young 
stock on pasture, its acute course and the foul hemorrhagic 
diarrhea with rapid emaciation of the patient are very 
suggestive. The determination of the coccidia by micro- 
scopic examination of the feces clinches the diagnosis. 

Course and Prognosis. — The course is acute, lasting from 
one to ten days. Animals which recover do so very gradually. 
Individual patients are left with a profound anemia which 
may lead to death in a few months. Mild cases which 
assume the type of a simple gastro-intestinal catarrh recover 
promptly in eighteen to twenty-four hours. The prognosis 
in young animals is less favorable than in older ones. Ob- 
viously weak and debilitated patients succumb more rapidly 
than those with higher resistance. The mortality is about 
5 to 10 per cent. 

Treatment. — Treatment is only successful in mild cases. 
It is important to take the animals from the pasture and 
place them on dry feed in the stable where they should be 
provided with pure water. Internally intestinal disinfectants 
and astringents have been recommended. A mixture of 
tincture of opium (5ij), oil of eucalyptus (5ss), dilute acetic 
acid (gss), mixed with water as a drench, is recommended. 
The above dose may be given hourly until the symptoms 
begin to subside, afterward three times daily. Intrarectal 
injections of tannic acid (1 per cent.) or alum (1 per cent.) 
have given good results. As the appetite remains impaired 
for some time the patient may be fed milk and eggs as a 
substitute for its usual food. 

Prevention. — Prevention consists in keeping young cattle 
away from the polluted water of swamps and stagnant 
pools. Once the disease breaks out the cattle should be 
removed to the stable and placed on dry feed with pure 
water, oi at least to dry pastures provided with a pure water 
supply. The coccidia in the feces are killed with a 3 per cent, 
solution of sulphuric acid. 



INDEX 



A 



Abortion, infectious, 430 
course, 434 
definition, 430 
diagnosis, 433, 434 
etiology, 431 
in cows, 431 
in mares, 431 
natural infection, 431, 432 
necropsy, 433 
occurrence, 430, 431 
prevention, 435, 436 

immunization, 435, 436 
symptoms, 432, 433 
treatment, 434, 435 
Abscess of brain, 223 
of liver, 146 
of lungs, 45 
Acne, 258 

contagious, 267 
definition, 258 
treatment, 258 
Actinomycosis, 413 
course, 417 
definition, 413, 414 
diagnosis, 416, 417 
etiology, 414 

natural infection, 414, 415 
occurrence, 414 
prognosis, 417 

symptoms in cattle, 415, 416 
head, 415 
lips, 416 
pharynx, 416 
tongue, 415, 416 
treatment, 417 
African horse sickness, 337 
definition, 337 
etiology, 337 
natural infection, 337 



African horse sickness, necropsy, 
337, 338 
occurrence, 337 
prevention, 338 
symptoms, 338 
acute, 338 
peracute, 338 
subacute, 338 
treatment, 338 
Allotriophagy, 187 
Alopecia, 256 
areata, 256 
definition, 256 
diagnosis, 257 
etiology, 256 
symptomatica, 256 
symptoms, 256, 257 
treatment, 257 
Alveolar emphysema, chronic, 46 
Amyloid kidney, 207 

liver, 151 
Anemia, 169 

of brain and its membranes, 211 
course, 170 
definition, 169 
etiology, 169 
infectious, of horse, 174 
course, 178 
definition, 174 
diagnosis, 178 
etiology, 175 
natural infection, 175 
necropsy, 175, 176 
occurrence, 174, 175 
prognosis, 178 
prophylaxis, 179 
symptoms, 176, 177, 178 
treatment, 178 
prognosis, 170 
symptoms, 169, 170 
treatment, 170 



464 



INDEX 



Aneurysm of aorta, 80, 81 
Angina simplex, 89 
Anthrax, 279 

classification, 282 
acute, 282 
cutaneous, 282, 283 
peracute, 282 
subacute, 282 

course, 283 

definition, 279 

diagnosis, 283 

etiology, 279 

natural infection, 280 
digestive tract, 280 
respiratory tract, 280 
skin, 280 

necropsy, 281 

occurrence, 279 

prevention, 284, 285 

prognosis, 284 

symptoms, 281, 282, 283 
period of incubation, 282 

treatment, 284 
Aorta, aneurysm of, 80, 81 
Apoplexy, 216 

definition, 216 

diagnosis, 217 

etiology, 216 

symptoms, 216, 217 

treatment, 217 
Arhythmia cordis, 74 
Arthritis, pyemic, 308 
Articular rheumatism, 194 
Ascarides, 135 
Ascites, 155 
Azoturia, 179 

complications, 181 

course, 181 

definition, 179 

diagnosis, 181, 182 

etiology, 179, 180 

occurrence, 179 

prognosis, 182 

prophylaxis, 183 

symptoms, 180, 181 

treatment, 182, 183 



B 

Bighead of sheep, 275 
definition, 275 
etiology, 276 
occurrence, 275, 276 



Bighead of sheep, prophylaxis, 277 
symptoms, 276 
treatment, 277 
Biliary fever, 449 
Black-leg, 287 
course, 289 
definition, 287 
diagnosis, 289 
etiology, 287, 288 
natural infection, 288 
necropsy, 289 
occurrence, 287 
prognosis, 289 
prophylaxis, 290 
symptoms, 288, 289 
general, 288 
local, 288 
treatment, 289 
Bleeding from lungs, 43 
Bloating in ox, 97 
course, 98 
definition, 97 
diagnosis, 98 
etiology, 97, 98 
occurrence, 97 
prognosis, 98 
prophylaxis, 100 
symptoms, 98 
treatment, 98, 99 
Borna disease, 225 
course, 226 
definition, 225 
etiology, 225 

natural infection, 225, 226 
necropsy, 226 
occurrence, 225 
prognosis, 226 
symptoms, 226 
treatment, 226 
Bots, 132 
Bradycardia, 74 
Brain, 209, 210 

and its membranes, 211 
anemia of, 211 
etiology, 211 
prognosis, 211 
symptoms, 211 
treatment, 211, 212 
congestion of, 212 
course, 213 
diagnosis, 213 
etiology, 212 
symptoms, 212 
treatment, 213 



INDEX 



465 



Brain and its membranes, hemor- 
rhage of, 216 
inflammation of, 221 
symptoms, 209 

focal or topical, 210 
general, 209 
traumatic injury and concussion 
of, 214 
definition, 214 
diagnosis, 215 
etiology, 214 
prognosis, 215 
symptoms, 214, 215 
treatment, 215 
tumors in, 228, 229 
diagnosis, 229 
symptoms, 229 
treatment, 229 
Braxy, 290 
course, 292 
definition, 290 
diagnosis, 292 
etiology, 291 
natural infection, 291 
necropsy, 291 
occurrence, 290, 291 
prognosis, 292 
symptoms, 291, 292 
treatment, 292 

protective inoculation, 292 
Broken back, 234 

neck, 234 
Bronchitis, catarrhal, 35 
chronic, 36 
course, 37 
definition, 35 
diagnosis, 37 
etiology, 35 
forms, 35 
occurrence, 35 
prognosis, 37 
symptoms, 36, 37 
treatment, 37, 38 
verminous, 38 
definition, 38 
diagnosis, 40 
etiology, 39 
necropsy, 39 
occurrence, 38 
prognosis, 40 
prophylaxis, 40 
symptoms, 39, 40 
treatment, 40 
Bronchopneumonia, 54, 296 
30 



Bronchopneumonia, cheesy, of 

sheep, 412 
Bronchopulmonary hemorrhage, 43 
Bronchorrhagia, 43 



Calf diphtheria, 369 
Canine madness, 382 
Carcinoma of liver, 151 
Caseous lymphadenitis of sheep, 

412 
Catalepsy, 246 
Catarrh, gastro-intestinal, 94 
of horse, 94 
course, 94 
definition, 94 
etiology, 94, 95 
occurrence, 94 
prognosis, 96 
symptoms, 95, 96 
gastric, 95 
intestinal, 95, 96 
treatment, 96, 97 
of ox, 114 
course, 117 
definition, 114, 115 
diagnosis, 116, 117 
etiology, 115 
occurrence, 115 
prognosis, 117 
symptoms, 115, 116 
gastric, 115, 116 
general, 116 
intestinal, 1 16 
treatment, 117, 118 
hygienic, 117 
medicinal, 117, 118 
of sucklings, 118 
course, 119, 120 
definition, 118 
diagnosis, 119 
etiology, 118, 119 
occurrence, 118 
prognosis, 119, 120 
symptoms, 119 
treatment, 120 
of guttural pouches, 27 
malignant head, of ox, 366 
course, 368 
definition, 366 
etiology, 366 
natural infection, 366, 367 



m 



466 



INDEX 



Catarrh, malignant head, of ox, 
occurrence, 366 
prognosis, 368 
symptoms, 367, 368 
digestive tract, 368 
eyes, 367 
nerves, 367 
respiratory tract, 367 
skin, 368 
udder, 368 
treatment, 368, 369 
of maxillary and frontal sinuses, 

26 
nasal, 17 
Catarrhal fever, 313 
Cattle plague, 333 
Cestodes, 133 
Chest plague, 319 
Chicken lice, 270 
Cholelithiasis, 151 
Chorea, 247 
definition, 247 
etiology, 247 
Cirrhosis of liver, 145 
Coccidial dysentery of cattle, 459 
Coccidiosis, 459 
course, 461 
definition, 459 
diagnosis, 461 
etiology, 460 
natural infection, 460 
necropsy, 460 
occurrence, 459 
prevention, 461 
prognosis, 461 
symptoms, 460, 461 
treatment, 461 
Coenurosis, 229 
Coital exanthema, 355 
Colics, so-called, of horse, 101 
etiology, 102, 103 
exciting, 102, 103 
predisposing, 102 
anatomical, 102 
pathological, 102 
forms, 103 

acute dilatation of stomach, 
103 
course, 105 
definition, 103 
diagnosis, 104, 105 
occurrence, 103, 104 
treatment, 105, 106 
embolic, 111 



Colics, forms, embolic, definition, 
111, 112 
diagnosis, 113 
pathogenesis, 112 
symptoms, 112, 113 
treatment, 113 
flatulent, 114 
symptoms, 114 
treatment, 114 
impaction with abnormal dis- 
placement, 110 
forms, 110 

displacement of large 
bowel, 110 
of small bowel, 111 
simple impaction of intestines, 
106 
course, 107 
definition, 106 
etiology, 106 
forms, 106 

impaction of large bowel, 
108 
of cecum, 108 
of colon, 109, 110 
of small bowel, 106, 107 
occurrence, 106 
prognosis, 107 
treatment, 107, 108 
spasmodic, 113 
definition, 113 
treatment, 113 
worm, 113, 114 
treatment, 114 
statistics, 103 
morbidity, 103 
mortality, 103 
Colpitis granulosa infectiosa bo- 

vum, 436 
Compsomyia macellaria, 270 
Congestion of brain and its mem- 
branes, 212 
of kidneys, 206 
of lungs, 41 
Consumption, 389 
Contagious acne, 267 

stomatitis of horse, 352 
Cornstalk disease, 296 
Coryza, acute, 17 

contagiosa equorum, 358 
gangrenosa bovum, 366 
gangrenous, 366 
pustulous, 21 
Cow-pox, 343 



INDEX 



467 



Cryptogamic poisoning, 125 
Cystic kidney, 207 
Cysticercus cellulosse, 197 
inermis, 198 



Demodex folliculorum (var. suis), 

265 
Dermanyssus avium, 270 
Dermatitis, contagious pustulous, 
267 
definition, 267 
diagnosis, 268 
etiology, 267 
symptoms, 267, 268 
treatment, 268 
Diabetes, 185 
definition, 185 
insipidus, 185 
mellitus, 186 
course, 186 
definition, 186 
etiology, 186 
occurrence, 186 
symptoms, 186 
treatment, 186 
Diaphragm, spasms of, 247 
course, 248 
definition, 247 
diagnosis, 248 
etiology, 247 
occurrence, 247 
prognosis, 248 
symptoms, 247, 248 
treatment, 248 
Diphtheria, calf, 369 
Distemper, loin, 174 
Distomatosis, 147 
Dochmiasis, 141 
Dourine, 451 
course, 455 
definition, 451 
diagnosis, 454, 455 
etiology, 451 

natural infection, 451, 452 
occurrence, 451 
prognosis, 455 
symptoms, 452, 453, 454 

nervous, 453, 454 
treatment, 455, 456 
Dysenteria neonatorum, 305 
Dysentery, chronic bacterial, 410 ' 
coccidial, of cattle, 459 



Dysentery, red, 459 
sporadic, 118 
of sucklings, 305 

course, 307 

definition, 305 

diagnosis, 306 

etiology, 305 

natural infection, 305, 306 

occurrence, 305 

prognosis, 307 

symptoms, 306 

treatment, 307, 308 



E 



East African coast fever, 448 
definition, 448 
etiology, 448, 449 
occurrence, 448 
prognosis, 449 
prophylaxis, 449 
symptoms, 449 
Echinococcus disease of liver, 148 
definition, 148 
natural history, 148, 149 
occurrence, 148 
symptoms, 149 
treatment, 149, 150 
Echinorhynchus gigas, 140 
Eclampsia, 246 
Eczema, 249 
acute, 253 

treatment, 253, 254 
chronic, 254 

treatment, 254 
course, 249 
definition, 249 
etiology, 250 
forms, 249 
crustated, 249 
erythematous, 249 
impetiginous, 249 
madidans, 249 
papulous, 249 
pustulous, 249 
red or weeping, 249 
seborrheic,' 250 
squamate, 250 
sycosiform, 250 
vesicular, 249 
of horse, 251 
of ox, 251 
of swine, 252 



468 



INDEX 



Eczsma, prognosis, 252 
in swine, 252 
symptoms, 250 
in horse, 251 
in ox, 251, 252 
treatment, 252, 253 
Edema of glottis, 31 
malignant, 285 
course, 287 
definition, 285 
diagnosis, 286 
etiology, 285 

natural infection, 285, 286 
occurrence, 285 
prognosis, 287 
symptoms, 286 
treatment, 287 
pulmonary, 41 
course, 42 
definition, 41 
diagnosis, 42 
etiology, 42 
prognosis, 42 
symptoms, 42 
treatment, 42, 43 
Electric stroke, 215 
Embolic colic, 111 
Emphysema, acute interstitial pul- 
monary, 48 
course, 49 
definition, 48 
diagnosis, 49 
etiology, 49 
occurrence, 48 
symptoms, 49 
treatment, 49 
chronic alveolar, 46 
course, 47 
definition, 46 
diagnosis, 47, 48 
drugs, 48 
etiology, 46 
occurrence, 46 
prognosis, 48 
symptoms, 46, 47 
treatment, 48 
Encephalitis, 221 
definition, 221 
meningo-, 217 
non-suppurative, 222 
course, 222 
definition, 221 
diagnosis, 223 
etiology, 221 



Encephalitis, non-suppurative, 
occurrence, 221 

symptoms, 222 

treatment, 223 
suppurative, 223 

diagnosis, 224 

etiology, 223, 224 

symptoms, 224 

treatment, 225 
Endocarditis, 77 
acute, 77, 78 

differential diagnosis, 78 

symptoms, 78 

treatment, 78, 79 
chronic, 79 

etiology, 79 

general symptoms, 79, 80 

individual valvular and ostial 
defects, 80 

treatment, 80 
Enteritis, croupous, 124 

course, 125 

definition, 124 

diagnosis, 125 

etiology, 124 

occurrence, 124 

prognosis, 125 

symptoms, 124, 125 

treatment, 125 
membranous, 124 
specific chronic, of ox, 410 
Enzootic paraplegia, 242 
Epilepsy, 245 
definition, 245 
etiology, 245 
occurrence, 245 
symptoms, 245, 246 

grand mal, 245, 246 

petit mal, 246 
treatment, 246 
Epistaxis, 22 
definition, 22 
diagnosis, 23 
etiology, 22 
symptoms, 22 
treatment, 23 
Epizootic lymphangitis, 427 
Erysipelas, swine, 292 

definition, 292 

diagnosis, 294, 295 

etiology, 293 

natural infection, 293 

necropsy, 293 

occurrence, 292 



INDEX 



469 



Erysipelas, swine, prevention, 295 
protective inoculation, 295 
prognosis, 294 
symptoms, 293, 294 
chronic form, 293, 294 
septicemic form, 294 
skin form, 293, 294 
treatment, 295 
Erythema, 257 
Eustrongylus gigas, 208 
Exanthema, coital, 355 
course, 357 
definition, 355 
diagnosis, 357 
etiology, 355 

natural infection, 355, 356 
occurrence, 355 
symptoms, 356, 357 
treatment, 337 



F 



Falling sickness, 245 

Favus, 267 

Fibrinous pneumonia, infectious, of 

horse, 319 
Filaria, skin, 271 
varieties, 271 

hemorrhagica, 271 
irritans, 271 
Flatulent colic, 114 
Follicle mite, 259 
Foot-and-mouth disease, 345 
course, 350, 351 
definition, 345, 346 
diagnosis, 349, 350 

confused with ergotism, 350 
with foot-rot of sheep, 350 
with mycotic stomatitis, 

349 
with necrotic stomatitis, 

350 
with traumatic stomatitis, 
349 
etiology, 346 

natural infection, 346, 347 
occurrence, 346 
prognosis, 351 
symptoms, 347, 348, 349 
treatment, 351, 352 

protective inoculation, 
352 
Forage poisoning, 125 



Gall-stones, 151 
diagnosis, 151 
symptoms, 151 
treatment, 151 
Game and cattle plague, 296 
Gangrene, pulmonary, 44 
definition, 44 
diagnosis, 45 
etiology, 44 
occurrence, 44 
prognosis, 45 
symptoms, 44 
treatment, 45 
Gastrectasis, 103 
Gastritis, traumatic, 128 
course, 131 
definition, 128 
diagnosis, 130, 131 
etiology, 129 
occurrence, 128, 129 
prognosis, 131 
symptoms, 129, 130 
treatment, 131, 132 
Gastro-enteritis, 120 
definition, 120, 121 
forms, 121 
catarrhal, 94 
mycotic, 125 
course, 127 
definition, 125 
diagnosis, 127 
etiology, 126 
occurrence, 125, 126 
prognosis, 127 
symptoms, 126 

gastro-intestinal, 126 
general, 127 
nervous, 126 
treatment, 127 
medicinal, 128 
simple, 121 
course, 123 
diagnosis, 122, 123 
etiology, 121, 122 
prognosis, 123 
symptoms, 122 
treatment, 123, 124 
occurrence, 121 
toxic, 128 
Gastro-intestinal catarrh of horse, 
94 
of ox, 114 



470 



INDEX 



Gastro- intestinal catarrh of suck- 

. lings, 118 
Gastromycosis ovis, 290 
Gastrophilus, 132 
life history, 132, 133 
prophylaxis, 133 
treatment, 133 
varieties, 132 
Genital horse-pox, 355 
Gid, 229 

definition, 229 
natural history, 230 
occurrence, 230 
symptoms in sheep, 230, 231 
treatment in sheep, 231 
Glanders, 417 
course, 426, 427 
definition, 417, 418 
diagnosis, 422, 423 
differential diagnosis, 423 
agglutination, 425 
complement-fixation, 425, 

426 
inoculations, 426 
mallein test, 423, 424, 425 
interpretation of results, 
424 
etiology, 418 
nasal, 420,421 
natural infection, 418, 419 
occurrence, 418 
pulmonary, 421, 422 
skin, 421 

symptoms, 419, 420, 421, 422 
Glottis, edema of, 31 
Gout, 186 
Granular vaginitis, infectious, of 

cattle, 436 
Grub in head of sheep, 24 
definition, 24 
diagnosis, 25, 26 
etiology, 24 
occurrence, 24 
prevention, 26 
symptoms, 25 
treatment, 26 
Guttural pouches, catarrh of, 27 
definition, 27 
etiology, 27 
symptoms, 27 
treatment, 27 
tympany of, 27 
definition, 27 
etiology, 27 



Guttural pouches, tympany of, 
occurrence, 27 
symptoms, 27 
treatment, 27 



H 



Heart beat, intermittent, 74 
course, 75 
definition, 74 
etiology, 74 
symptoms, 74, 75 
treatment, 75 
hypertrophy and dilatation of, 75 
course, 76 
definition, 75 
diagnosis, 76 
etiology, 75 
symptoms, 75, 76 
treatment, 76 
nervous palpitation of, 73 
course, 73 
definition, 73 
diagnosis, 73 
etiology, 73 
occurrence, 73 
symptoms, 73 
treatment, 73 
rupture of, 80 
slow, 74 

definition, 74 
diagnosis, 74 
etiology, 74 
symptoms, 74 
treatment, 74 
tumors in, 81 
Heartwater, 338 
Heatstroke, 213 
prognosis, 214 
symptoms, 213, 214 
treatment, 214 
Helminthiasis, 132 
Hematopinus, 269 
Hematuria, 208 
Hemoglobinuria, 208 
infectious, of ox, 446 
paralytic, 179 
Hemopericardium, 72 
definition, 72 
etiology, 72 
symptoms, 72 
Hemophilia, 173 
definition, 173 



INDEX 



471 



Hemophilia, etiology, 173 
Hemoptysis, 43 

Hemorrhage in brain and its mem- 
branes, 216 
bronchopulmonary, 43 
definition, 43 
etiology, 43 
symptoms, 43 
treatment, 43 
renal, 206 

etiology, 206, 207 
symptoms, 207 
Hemorrhagic septicemia, 295 
of cattle, 296 
course, 299 
definition, 296 
differential diagnosis, 298 
etiology, 296 
natural infection, 297 
necropsy, 297 
occurrence, 296 
prognosis, 299 
symptoms, 297, 298 

exanthematous form, 298 
intestinal form, 297, 298 
pectoral form, 298 
treatment, 299 
of sheep, 300 
definition, 300 
diagnosis, 302, 303 
etiology, 300 

natural infection, 300, 301 
necropsy, 301, 302 
occurrence, 300 
prevention, 303 
symptoms, 302 
treatment, 303 

protective inoculation, 
303 
Hepatitis, 144 

acute parenchymatous, 144 
definition, 144 
diagnosis, 145 
etiology, 144, 145 
necropsy, 145 
symptoms, 145 
treatment, 145 
chronic interstitial, 145 
course, 146 
definition, 145 
etiology, 145 
occurrence, 145 
symptoms, 146 
treatment, 146 



Hepatitis, purulent, 146 
course, 146 
etiology, 146 
prognosis, 146 
symptoms, 146 
treatment, 146 
Herpes, 265 
in cattle, 266 
definition, 265 
diagnosis, 266 
etiology, 265, 266 
forms, 266 

circinatus, 265 
maculosis, 266 
tonsurans, 266 
vesiculosis, 266 
in horse, 327 
occurrence, 265 
treatment, 267 
Hodgkin's disease, 172 
Hog cholera, 327 
definition, 327 
diagnosis, 331, 332 

confused with lung-worms, 
332 
with swill cholera, 332 
with tuberculosis, 332 
etiology, 328 

natural infection, 328, 329 
necropsy, 329, 330 
intestinal form, 329 
pectoral form, 329 
septicemic form, 329 
occurrence, 327, 328 
prognosis, 332 
symptoms, 330, 331 
bowel form, 330, 331 
mixed form, 331 
pectoral form, 331 
septicemic form, 330 
treatment, 333 
measles, 197 
definition, 197 
symptoms, 197 
Horse-pox, 345 
genital, 355 
Hydremia, 173 
definition, 173 
etiology, 173 
Hydrocephalus, chronic, 227 
course, 228 
definition, 227 
etiology, 227 
prognosis, 228 



472 



INDEX 



Hydrocephalus, chronic, symp- 
toms, 227, 228 
treatment, 228 
Hydronephrosis, 207 
etiology, 207 
symptoms, 207 
treatment, 207 
Hydropericardium, 71 
definition, 71 
diagnosis, 72 
etiology, 71 
symptoms, 71 
treatment, 72 
Hydrophobia, 382 
Hydropsy, abdominal, 155 
definition, 155 
diagnosis, 156 
etiology, 155 
occurrence, 155 
prognosis, 156 
symptoms, 155, 156 
treatment, 156, 157 
Hydrothorax, 66 
definition, 66 
diagnosis, 66 
etiology, 66 
symptoms, 66 
treatment, 66 
Hyperemia, 206 
definition, 206 
diagnosis, 206 
symptoms, 206 
treatment, 206 
Hyperkinesis cordis, 73 
Hypertrophy and dilatation of 

heart, 75 
Hypoderma lineatum, 268 



Icterus, 142 

gravis, 143 

neonatorum, 143 
Impaction of cecum, 108 

of colon, 109 

of intestines, 106 

of large bowel, 108 

of small bowel, 106, 107 
Impotency, 167 

definition, 167 

etiology, 167 

treatment, 167 
Indigestion of cattle, 114 

traumatic, of ox, 128 



Infectious abortion, 430 

fibrinous pneumonia of horse 

319 
hemoglobinuria of ox, 446 
itching disease, 231 
Influenza of horse, 313 
course, 317 
definition, 313 
diagnosis, 316, 317 
etiology, 314 

natural infection, 314, 315 
occurrence, 313, 314 
prognosis, 317 
symptoms, 315, 316 

digestive tract, 315, 316 
eye lesions, 315 
respiratory tract, 315 
skin, 316 

urinogenital tract, 316 
treatment, 317, 318, 319 
pectoral, 319 
Intestines, animal parasites in, 133 
varieties, 133 

echinorhynchus gigas, 140 
cesophagostoma, 138 
oxyuris curvula, 140 
palisade- worms, 136 
round-worms, 135 
tapeworms, 133 
uncinaria, 141 
whip-worms, 141 
simple impaction of, 106 
Itching disease, infectious, 231 
Ixodoidea, 270 



Japanese farcy, 427 

Jaundice, 142 
malignant, 143 
definition, 143 
etiology, 143 
occurrence, 143 
prognosis, 143 
symptoms, 143 
treatment, 143 
of newborn, 143 
definition, 143 
etiology, 144 
occurrence, 144 
prognosis, 144 
symptoms, 144 
treatment, 144 
obstructive, 142 



INDEX 



473 



Jaundice, obstructive, definition, 
142 

prognosis, 143 

symptoms, 142, 143 

treatment, 143 
Johne's disease, 410 

course, 412 

definition, 410 

diagnosis, 411 

etiology, 410 

natural infection, 410 

necropsy, 410, 411 

occurrence, 410 

prognosis, 412 

symptoms, 411 

treatment, 412 
Joint ill, 308 



Kidney, amyloid, 207 
congestion of, 206 
cystic, 207 
inflammation of, 199 
parasites in, 208 
stones, 204 
tumors in, 207 
treatment, 207 



Laryngitis, 28 
forms, 28 
catarrhal, 28 

course, 29 

definition, 28 

diagnosis, 29 

etiology, 28 

occurrence, 28 

symptoms, 28, 29 

treatment, 29, 30 
croupous, 30 

course, 31 

definition, 30 

diagnosis, 31 

etiology, 30 

occurrence, 30 

symptoms, 31 

treatment, 31 
edematous, 31 

definition, 31, 32 
inflammatory, 32 
non-inflammatory, 32 

prognosis, 32 



Laryngitis, forms, edsmatous, 
symptoms, 32 
treatment, 32 
membranous, 30 
Larynx, tumors in, 34 
occurrence, 34 
symptoms, 34 
Leukemia, 170 
definition, 170 
diagnosis, 172 
etiology, 170 
forms, 170, 171 
prognosis, 172 
symptoms, 171, 172 
treatment, 172 
Leukoencephalitis, 125 
Lice, 269 

causing ostitis in ox, 270 
chicken, 270 
definition, 269 
treatment, 269 
Licking disease, 187 
course, 187, 188 
definition, 187 
etiology, 187 
occurrence, 187 
prevention, 188 
prognosis, 187, 188 
symptoms, 187 
treatment, 188 
Lightning stroke, 215 
occurrence, 215 
symptoms, 216 
treatment, 216 
Lip-and-leg ulceration of sheep, 272 
definition, 272 
etiology, 272 
occurrence, 272 
prophylaxis, 275 
symptoms, 272, 273, 274 
foot-rot form, 273 
lip-and-leg form, 272 
sore mouth form, 273 
venereal form, 273 
treatment, 274, 275 
Liver, abscess of, 146 
amyloid, 151 
character, 151 
symptoms, 151 
carcinoma of, 151 
cirrhosis of, 145 
echinococcus disease of, 148 
fluke disease, 147 
course, 148 



474 



INDEX 



Liver fluke diseass, definition, 147 
natural history, 147 
occurrence, 147 
prophylaxis, 148 
symptoms, 148 
treatment, 148 
inflammation of, 144 
necrosis of, 150 
parasites in, 151 
rupture of, 150 
♦definition, 150 
etiology, 150 
symptoms, 150 
treatment, 150 
Lockjaw, 376 
Loin distemper, 174 
Lump jaw, 413 
Lung fever, 49 

plague of cattle, 371 
course, 375 
definition, 371 
diagnosis, 374, 375 
from hemorrhagic septi- 
cemia, 374 
from pneumomycosis, 374, 

375 
from pulmonary tubercu- 
losis, 374 
from verminous bronchitis, 
375 
etiology, 372 
natural infection, 372 
necropsy, 372, 373 
occurrence, 371, 372 
symptoms, 373, 374 
treatment, 375 
worm plague, 38 
Lungs, abscess of, 45 
course, 45 
definition, 45 
diagnosis, 45 
etiology, 45 
symptoms, 45 
treatment, 45 
bleeding from, 43 
circulatory disturbances in, 41 
congestion of, 41 
definition, 41 
etiology, 41 
inflammation of, 49 
tumors in, 60 
Lymphadenitis, caseous, of sheep, 
412 
course, 413 



Lymphadenitis, caseous, of sheep, 
definition, 412 

etiology, 412 

natural infection, 412 

necropsy, 412, 413 

occurrence, 412 

prognosis, 413 

symptoms, 413 

treatment, 413* 
Lymphangitis, epizootic, 427 
course, 428 
definition, 427 
diagnosis, 428 
etiology, 427 

natural infection, 427, 428 
occurrence, 427 
prophylaxis, 429 
symptoms, 428 
treatment, 428, 429 
ulcerous, of horse, 429 
definition, 429 
diagnosis, 430 
etiology, 429 
natural infection, 429 
occurrence, 429" 
symptoms, 429, 430 
treatment, 430 
Lyssa, 382 

M 

Mad itch, 231 
Madness, canine, 382 
Mai de caderas, 458 
course, 459 
definition, 458 
etiology, 458 
occurrence, 458 
prevention, 459 
prognosis, 459 
symptoms, 458 
treatment, 459 
Malignant edema, 285 

head catarrh of ox, 366 
Malleus, 417 
Mange, 259 
of cattle, 264 
symptoms, 264 
treatment, 264 
definition, 259 
etiology, 259 
follicular, 265 
diagnosis, 265 
etiology, 265 
occurrence, 265 



INDEX 



475 



Mange, follicular, prognosis, 265 
of horse, 260 
forms, 260 
psoroptic, 261 
diagnosis, 261 
prognosis, 261 
treatment, 261 
sarcoptic, 260 
definition, 260 
diagnosis, 260 
prognosis, 260 
symptoms, 260 
treatment, 260, 261 
symbiotic, 261 
diagnosis, 261 
prognosis, 261 
symptoms, 261 
treatment, 261 
occurrence, 259 
of sheep, 261 
forms, 261 
psoroptic, 262 

diagnosis, 262, 263 
occurrence, 262 
prognosis, 263 
symptoms, 262 
treatment, 263 
sarcoptic, 263 
prognosis, 263 
symptoms, 263 
treatment, 263 
symbiotic, 264 
of swine, 264 

symptoms, 264, 265 
treatment, 265 
symbiotic, 264 

treatment, 264 
varieties, 259 
psoroptic, 259, 260 
sarcoptic, 259 
symbiotic, 260 
Maxillary and frontal sinuses, 
catarrh of, 26 
definition, 26 
diagnosis, 26 
etiology, 26 
occurrence, 26 
symptoms, 26 
treatment, 26 
Measles, hog, 197 
Miescher's tubules, 198 
Meningitis, 236 
acute spinal, 236 
course, 237 



Meningitis, acute spinal, diagnosis, 
237 
etiology, 236 
occurrence, 236 
symptoms, 236, 237 
treatment, 238 
enzootic cerebrospinal, of horse, 
225 
Meningo-encephalitis, 217 
course, 219 
definition, 217 
diagnosis, 219, 220 
etiology, 217, 218 
infectious, 225 
occurrence, 217 
prognosis, 220 
symptoms, 218, 219 
treatment, 220, 221 
Meningomyelitis, 236 
Milk fever, 161 
Mold poisoning, 125 
Muscular rheumatism, 193 
Myelitis, spinal, 238 
course, 239 
definition, 238 
diagnosis, 239, 240 
etiology, 238 
forms, 238 
diffuse, 239 
disseminated, 239 
transverse, 238, 239 
occurrence, 238 
prognosis, 239 
symptoms, 238 
treatment, 240 
Myocarditis, 76 
definition, 76 
etiology, 76, 77 
symptoms, 77 
treatment, 77 



N 



Nagana, 457 
definition, 457 
diagnosis, 457 
etiology, 457 
occurrence, 457 
prevention, 458 
symptoms, 457, 458 

Nasal catarrh, 17 

Navel ill, 308 

Necrobacillosis, 272 



476 



INDEX 



Necrosis of liver, 150 
definition, 150 
symptoms, 150 
treatment, 150 
Necrotic stomatitis of calves, 367 
Nephritis, 199 

acute parenchymatous, 199 
course, 200 
definition, 199 
diagnosis, 200 
etiology, 199, 200 
occurrence, 199 
prognosis, 201 
symptoms, 200 
treatment, 201 
chronic interstitial, 201 
definition, 201 
etiology, 202 
occurrence, 201 
prognosis, 202 
symptoms, 202 
treatment, 202 
purulent, 202 
definition, 202 
etiology, 202, 203 
occurrence, 202 
prognosis, 203 
symptoms, 203 
treatment, 203 
Nervous palpitation of heart, 73 
Nettle rash, 255 
Nodule disease, 138 
Nymphomania, 163 
etiology, 163 
symptoms, 163, 164 
treatment, 164 



Obesity, 186 

definition, 186, 187 

treatment, 187 
(Esophagostoma in intestines, 138 
(Estrus ovis, 24 

life history, 25 
Omphalophlebitis, 308 
Osteomalacia, 190 
Osteoporosis, 190 

course, 192 

definition, 190 

diagnosis, 192 

etiology, 191 

necropsy, 191 

occurrence, 191 



Osteoporosis, prognosis, 192 
symptoms, 191, 192 
treatment, 192 

Oxyuris curvula, 140 

Ozena, 18 



Palisade-worms, 136 
Paralysis, infectious bulbar, 231 
course, 232 
definition, 231 
diagnosis, 232 
etiology, 231, 232 
occurrence, 231 
prognosis, 232 
symptoms, 232 
treatment, 232, 233 
of pharynx, 91 
of recurrent nerve, 32 
Paralytic hemoglobinuria, 179 
Paraplegia, enzootic, 242 
course, 243 
definition, 242 
diagnosis, 243 
etiology, 242 
natural infection, 242 
occurrence, 242 
prophylaxis, 243 
symptoms, 242, 243 
treatment, 243 
Parasites, animal, in intestines, 133 
varieties, 133 

echinorhynchus gigas, 140 
diagnosis, 140 
life history, 140 
prevention, 140 
treatment, 140 
cesophagostoma, 138 
diagnosis, 139 
life history, 139 
necropsy, 139 
symptoms, 139 
treatment, 139 
varieties, 138 

cesophagostoma colum- 
bianum of Ameri- 
can sheep, 138 
dentatum of swine, 

138 
radiatum, 138 
venulosum of Euro- 
pean sheep, 138 
oxyuris curvula, 140 v 



INDEX 



477 



Parasites, animal, varieties, oxy- 
uris curvula, treatment, 
140 
palisade-worms, 136 
prevention, 138 
treatment, 137 
varieties, 136 
round-worms, 135 
prophylaxis, 136 
symptoms, 135, 136 
treatment, 136 
varieties, 135 
in horses, 135 
in ox and swine, 135 
tapeworms, 133 
diagnosis, 134 
life cycle, 133 
prevention, 135 
symptoms, 134 
treatment, 135 
varieties, 134 
in horse, 134 
in ox, 134 
in sheep, 134 
thorn-headed worm, 140 
uncinaria, 141 

life history, 141 
whip- worms, 141 
in kidneys, 208 
in liver, 151 

in nose and sinuses of head, 24 
in peritoneum, 157 
in pharynx, 93 
in stomach, 132 
Paratuberculosis, intestinal, 410 
Parturient paresis, 161 
course, 162 
definition, 161 
etiology, 161 
occurrence, 161 
prognosis, 162 
symptoms, 161, 162 
treatment, 162, 163 
Pasteurellosis, 295 
neonatorum, 308 
Pectoral influenza, 319 
Pemphigus, 258 
definition, 258 
etiology, 258 
prognosis, 258 
Pericarditis, 69 
course, 70, 71 
definition, 69 
diagnosis, 71 



Pericarditis, etiology, 69 
occurrence, 69 
prognosis, 70, 71 
symptoms, 70 
treatment, 71 
Peritoneum, animal parasites in, 
157 
varieties, 157 
in horse, 157 
in sheep, 157 
in swine, 157 
tumors in, 157 
symptoms, 157 
treatment, 157 
Peritonitis, 152 
course, 154 
definition, 152 
diagnosis, 153, 154 
etiology, 152 
occurrence, 152 
prognosis, 154 
symptoms, 153 
treatment, 154, 155 
Pestis equorum, 337 
Petechial fever, 322 
Pharyngitis, 89 
course, 91 
definition, 89 
diagnosis, 90, 91 
etiology, 89 
forms, 89, 90 
occurrence, 89 
symptoms, 90 
treatment, 91 
Pharynx, 89 
paralysis of, 91 
course, 92 
definition, 91 
diagnosis, 92 
etiology, 92 
symptoms, 92 
treatment, 92, 93 
parasites in, 93 
Pica, 187 
Pink eye, 313 
Piroplasmoses, 439, 440 
Piroplasmosis, 440 

of cattle (Texas fever), 440 
course, 443 
definition, 440 
diagnosis, 442, 443 
etiology, 440, 441 
necropsy, 442 
occurrence, 440 



478 



INDEX 



Piroplasmosis of cattle (Texas 
fever), prevention, 443, 
444, 445, 446 
protective inoculation, 445 
symptoms, 442 
treatment, 443 
of European cattle, 446 
definition, 446 
etiology, 447 
occurrence, 446, 447 
prognosis, 448 
prophylaxis, 448 

protective inoculation, 448 
symptoms, 447 
treatment, 448 
of horse, 449 
definition, 449 
diagnosis, 450 
etiology, 449 
occurrence, 449 
symptoms, 449, 450 
treatment, 450 
of sheep, 450 
definition, 450 
etiology, 450 
symptoms, 450 
treatment, 450 
Pleurisy, 319 
Pleuritis, 61 
course, 64 
definition, 61 
diagnosis, 64 
drugs, 65, 66 
etiology, 61, 62 
occurrence, 61 
prognosis, 65 
symptoms, 62, 63 
treatment, 65 
Pleuropneumonia, contagious, of 
cattle, 371 
septic, of calves, 299 
definition, 299 
etiology, 299 
natural infection, 299 
necropsy, 299 
occurrence, 299 
prognosis, 300 
symptoms, 299, 300 
treatment, 300 
Pneumonia, 49 
catarrhal, 54 
course, 56 
definition, 54 
diagnosis, 56 



Pneumonia, catarrhal, etiology, 54, 
55 
occurrence, 54 
symptoms, 55, 56 
treatment, 56, 57 
croupous, 49 
fibrinous, 49 

complications, 52 
.course, 52, 53 
definition, 49 
diagnosis, 51, 52 
drugs, 53, 54 
etiology, 49, 50 
symptoms, 50, 51 
treatment, 53 
foreign body, 57 
course, 58 
definition, 57 
diagnosis, 58 
etiology, 57 
necropsy, 57 
prognosis, 58 
symptoms, 57, 58 
treatment, 58 
infectious fibrinous, of horse, 319 
complications, 321 
course, 322 
definition, 319 
diagnosis, 321, 322 
etiology, 320 

natural infection, 320, 321 
necropsy, 321 
occurrence, 319, 320 
prognosis, 322 
symptoms, 321 
treatment, 322 
interstitial, 59 
course, 60 
definition, 59 
diagnosis, 59 
etiology, 59 
prognosis, 60 
symptoms, 59 
treatment, 60 
metastatic, 58 
definition, 58 
etiology, 58 
necropsy, 59 
symptoms, 59 
treatment, 59 
Pneumonitis, 49 
Pneumopericardium, 72 
definition, 72 
etiology, 72 



INDEX 



479 



Pneumopericardium, occurrence, 

72 
prognosis, 72 
symptoms, 72 
treatment, 72 
Pneumorrhagia, 43 
Pneumothorax, 66 
course, 67 
definition, 66 
diagnosis, 67 
etiology, 66, 67 
prognosis, 67 
symptoms, 67 
treatment, 67 
Podagra, 186 

Poisoning, cryptogamic, 125 
forage, 125 
mold, 125 
silage, 125 
Pox, 339 
of cow, 343 

course, 345 

definition, 343 

diagnosis, 344, 345 

etiology, 343 

natural infection, 343, 344 

occurrence, 343 

prognosis, 345 

symptoms, 344 

treatment, 345 

protective inoculation, 345 
definition, 339 

etiological relationship, 339, 340 
etiology, 340 
of horse, 345 

definition, 345 

etiology, 345 

symptoms, 345 
occurrence, 339 
of sheep, 340 

complications, 342 

course, 343 

definition, 340 

diagnosis, 343 

etiology, 340 

natural infection, 340, 341 
-occurrence, 340 

prophylaxis, 343 

symptoms, 341, 342 

treatment, 343 
Pruritus, 257 
definition, 257 
etiology, 257 
treatment, 258 



Pseudoleukemia, 172 
definition, 172 
occurrence, 172 
prognosis, 173 
symptoms, 173 
treatment, 173 
Pseudorabies, 231 
Pseudotuberculosis of sheep, 412 
Psoroptic mange, 261 
of horse, 261 
of sheep, 262 
Puerperal septicemia, 159 
course, 160 
definition, 159 
diagnosis, 160 
etiology, 159 
occurrence, 159 
prevention, 160 
prognosis, 160 
symptoms, 159, 160 
treatment, 160 
Pulmonary edema, 41 

gangrene, 44 
Purpura hemorrhagica, 322 
complications, 324, 325 
foreign-body pneumonia, 325 
gangrene of skin, 324 
gastro-enteritis, 325 
septicemia, 325 
course, 325, 326 
definition, 322 
diagnosis, 325 
etiology, 322, 323 
occurrence, 322 
prognosis, 326 
symptoms, 323, 324 
treatment, 326, 327 
medicinal, 327 
Pyelonephritis, 203 
bacterial, of cattle, 203 
diagnosis, 204 
prognosis, 204 
symptoms, 204 
calculous, 204 

definition, 204, 205 
occurrence, 205 
symptoms, 205 
treatment, 205 
definition, 203 
etiology, 203 
occurrence, 203 
Pyemic arthritis, 308 
Pyosepticemia of sucklings, 308 
course, 311 



480 



INDEX 



Pyosepticemia of sucklings, defi- 
nition, 308 

diagnosis, 311 

etiology, 308 

natural infection, 308, 309 
extra-uterine, 308 
intra-u ferine, 308 

necropsy, 309, 310 
acute, 309 
chronic, 309, 310 
peracute, 309 

occurrence, 308 

prevention, 312, 313 

prognosis, 312 

symptoms, 310, 311 
articular form, 310 
septicemic form, 310 
umbilical form, 310, 311 

treatment, 312 
vaccination, 312 



Rabies, 382 

course, 387 

definition, 382 

diagnosis, 388, 387 

diagnostic inoculations, 387 

etiology, 382 

natural infection, 383 

necropsy, 383 

occurrence, 382 

prognosis, 387 

prophylaxis, 388 

symptoms, 383, 384, 385, 386 
in horse, 384 
in ox, 385, 386 
in sheep, 386 
in swine, 386 

treatment, 387, 388 
Rachitis, 189 

definition, 189 

etiology, 189 

necropsy, 189, 190 

occurrence, 189 

prognosis, 190 

symptoms, 190 

treatment, 190 
Recurrent nerve, paralysis of, 32 
Red dysentery, 459 

water, 446 

Rhodesian, 448 
Renal hemorrhage, 206 
Respirations, 209 



Respirations, Biot, 209 

Cheyne-Stokes, 209 
Rheumatism, 194 
articular, 194 
course, 195, 196 
definition, 194 
diagnosis, 195 
etiology, 194, 195 
symptoms, 195 
treatment, 196 
muscular, 193 
definition, 193 
etiology, 193 
necropsy, 193 
occurrence, 193 
symptoms, 193, 194 
treatment, 194 
Rhinitis, 17 
catarrhal, 17 
acute, 17 
course, 18 
definition, 17 
etiology, 17 
primary, 17 
secondary, 17 
symptoms, 18 
treatment, 18 - 
chronic, 18 
diagnosis, 19 
etiology, 18 
symptoms, 18, 19 
treatment, 19, 20 
croupous, 20 
course, 20 
definition, 20 
etiology, 20 
occurrence, 20 
symptoms, 20 
treatment, 20 
diphtheritic, 20 
definition, 20 
diagnosis, 21 
etiology, 21 
occurrence, 20 
symptoms, 21 
treatment, 21 
follicular, 21 
definition, 21 
diagnosis, 22 
etiology, 21 
occurrence, 21 
symptoms, 21 
treatment, 22 
infectious, of swine, 23 



INDEX 



481 



Rhinitis, infectious, of swine, 
course, 24 
definition, 23 
diagnosis, 24 
natural infection, 23 
symptoms, 23, 24 
treatment, 24 
Rhodesian red water, 448 
Rickets, 189 
Rinderpest, 333 
course, 336 
definition, 333 
diagnosis, 336 

from foot-and-mouth disease, 

336 
from malignant head catarrh, 
336 
etiology, 333, 334 
natural infection, 334 
necropsy, 334, 335 
occurrence, 333 
prognosis, 336 
prophylaxis, 336, 337 

protective inoculation, 336 
symptoms, 335 
treatment, 336 
Ringworm, 265 
Riverbottom disease, 174 
Roaring, 32 
course, 34 
definition, 32 
diagnosis, 33 
etiology, 32, 33 
prognosis, 34 
symptoms, 33 
treatment, 34 
Round-worms, 135 
Rupture of heart, 80 
of liver, 150 



Saccharomycosis, 427 
Saint Vitus' dance, 247 
Sarcoptic mite, 259 
Scab, 259 
mites, 259 
varieties, 259 
psoroptic, 259 
sarcoptic, 259 
symbiotic, 259 
of sheep, 261 
Scabies, 259 
Scorbutus, 173 



Scours of sucklings, 118 
Screw fly, 270 

life history, 270 
treatment, 270 
Scurvy, 173 
Septic pleuropneumonia of calves, 

299 
Septicemia, hemorrhagic, 295 

puerperal, 159 
Sexual desire, abnormalities in, 
163 
diminished, 165 
etiology, 165 
treatment, 165 
Sheep scab, 261 
Sheep-pox, 340 
Shipping fever, 319 
Silage poisoning, 125 
Skin filaria, 270, 271 
varieties, 270, 271 

filaria hemorrhagica, 271 
treatment, 271 
irritans, 271 
treatment, 271 
So-called colics of horse, 101 
Sore throat, 89 
Southern cattle fever, 440 
Spasmodic colic, 113 
Spasms of the diaphragm, 247 
Spinal cord, 240 

compression of, 240 
course, 241 
definition, 240 
diagnosis, 241 
etiology, 240 
occurrence, 240 
prognosis, 241 
symptoms, 241 
treatment, 241 
contusion of, 234 
inflammation of coverings of, 
236 
of substance of, 238 
traumatic injury of, 234 
course, 235 
definition, 234 
diagnosis, 235 
etiology, 234 
occurrence, 234 
prognosis, 235 
symptoms, 234, 235 
treatment, 235 
meningitis, 236 
myelitis, 238 



482 



INDEX 



Spinal paralysis, infectious, of 

horse, 242 
Spiroptera, 133 
Sporadic dysentery, 118 
Sterility, 165 
definition, 165 
etiology, 166 
occurrence, 166 
prognosis, 166 
symptoms, 166 
treatment, 166 
Stomach, acute dilatation of, 103 
and bowels, inflammation of, 120 
animal parasites in, 132 
Stomatitis, 83 
catarrhal, 83 
character, 83 
course, 84 
diagnosis, 85 
etiology, 83, 84 
occurrence, 83 
symptoms, 84 
treatment, 85 
contagious, of horse, 352 
course, 354 
definition, 352 
diagnosis, 353, 354 
etiology, 352 

natural infection, 352, 353 
occurrence, 352 
prophylaxis, 354, 355 
symptoms, 353 
treatment, 354 
mycotic, 87 
definition, 87 
diagnosis, 88 
etiology, 87 
occurrence, 87 
prognosis, 88 
symptoms, 87, 88 
treatment, 88 
necrotic, of calves, 369 
course, 370 
definition, 369 
diagnosis, 370 
etiology, 369 
natural infection, 369 
necropsy, 369, 370 
occurrence, 369 
prevention, 371 
prognosis, 371 
symptoms, 370 
treatment, 371 
papulous, 86 



Stomatitis, papulous, definition, 86 
diagnosis, 86, 87 
etiology, 86 
prognosis, 87 
symptoms, 86 
treatment, 87 
vesicular, 85 
course, 86 
definition, 85 
diagnosis, 86 
from foot-and-mouth disease, 

86 
from pustular stomatitis, 86 
etiology, 85 
occurrence, 85 
symptoms, 85, 86 
treatment, 86 
Strangles, 358 
course, 363, 364 
definition, 358 
diagnosis, 363 
etiology, 358 

natural infection, 358, 359 
necropsy, 359 
occurrence, 358 
prognosis, 363, 364 
symptoms, 360, 361, 362, 363 
types, 360 
irregular, 361 
regular, 360 
treatment, 364, 365, 366 
protective inoculation, 365 
active immunity, 366 
passive immunity, 366 
Strongylus armatus, 136 
varieties, 136 

sclerostomum bidentatum, 
136, 137 
edentatum, 137 
quadridentatum, 137 
treatment, 137, 138 
contortus, 138 
convolutus, 138 
tetracanthus, 137 
Sunstroke, 213 

treatment, 213 
Surra, 456 
course, 456 
definition, 456 
etiology, 456 
occurrence, 456 
prevention, 457 
prognosis, 456 
symptoms, 456 



INDEX 



483 



Surra, treatment, 456, 457 
Swamp fever, 174 
Swine erysipelas, 292 

fever, 327 
Symbiotic mites, 260 



Takosis of Angora goats, 303 
course, 304 
definition, 303 
diagnosis, 304 
etiology, 303, 304 
occurrence, 303 
necropsy, 304 
prophylaxis, 305 
symptoms, 304 
treatment, 304, 305 
Tapeworms, 133 
Tetanus, 376 
course, 380 
definition, 376 
diagnosis, 379, 380 
etiology, 376 

natural infection, 376, 377 
necropsy, 377 
occurrence, 376 
prevention, 381, 382 
prognosis, 380 
symptoms, 377, 378, 379 
in horse, 377 
in ox, 379 
in sheep, 379 
in swine, 379 
treatment, 380, 381 
hygienic, 380, 381 
medicinal, 381 
Texas fever, 440 
Thorn-headed worm, 140 
Ticks, 270 
Trichinosis, 196 
definition, 196 

mode of infestation, 196, 197 
occurrence, 196 
symptoms, 197 
treatment, 197 
Trichorrhexis nodosa, 258 
definition, 258 
prognosis, 258 
treatment, 258 
Trypanosomiasis, 451 
Tsetse disease, 457 
Tuberculosis, 389 



Tuberculosis, acute miliary, 398 
course, 405, 406 
definition, 389 
diagnosis, 402, 403, 404, 405 
diagnostic inoculation, 405 
microscopic examination, 404 
tuberculin reaction, 403, 404 
etiology, 390 
eradication, 407 

palliative methods, 407, 408 
Bang, 407, 408 
Ostertag, 408 
radical method, 407 
natural infection, 390, 391, 392 
modes of elimination, 392, 393 

of infection, 390, 391, 392 
susceptibility, 393 
necropsy, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397 
in ox, 394 

genital organs, 397 
kidneys, 397 
liver, 396, 397 
lungs, 394, 395 
lymph glands, 396 
serous membranes, 395, 396 
spleen, 397 
udder, 397 
occurrence, 389, 390 
prognosis, 406 
prophylaxis, 406, 407 
protective inoculation, 408 

methods of bovo vaccination 
408, 409 
Heyman, 409 
Klimmer, 409 
Koch-Schutz, 409 
von Behring, 408, 409 
symptoms, 398 
fever, 398 
in horse, 402 
in ox, 398, 399 
bowels, 401 
genital organs, 401 
larynx, 400 
lungs, 399 
appetite, 399 
loss of flesh, 399, 400 
percussion, 399 
lymph glands, 400 
testes, 401 
udder, 400 
uterus, 401 
vagina, 401 
in swine, 401 



484 



INDEX 



Tuberculosis, symptoms, in swine, 
bones, 402 
bowels, 401, 402 
joints, 402 
lungs, 401 
lymph glands, 401 
treatment, 406 
Tubules, Miescher's, 198 
Tumors, brain, 228, 229 
in heart, 81 
in kidney, 207 
in larynx, 34 
in lung, 60 
in peritoneum, 157 
Typhoid fever, 313 
Tympanites, 97 

Tympany, chronic or habitual, 100 
diagnosis, 100 
etiology, 100 
prognosis, 100 
symptoms, 100 
treatment, 101 
of guttural pouch, 27 



U 



Ulceration, lip-and-leg, of sheep, 

272 
Ulcerous lymphangitis of the horse, 

429 
Uncinariasis, 141 

diagnosis, 141 

natural infection, 141 

prevention, 141 

symptoms, 141 

treatment, 141 
Uremia, 205 

definition, 205 

etiology, 205 

occurrence, 205 

symptoms, 205, 206 

treatment, 206 
Urticaria, 255 

course, 256 



Urticaria, definition, 255 

etiology, 255 

external causes, 255 
internal causes, 255 

symptoms, 255 

treatment, 256 



Vaginitis, infectious granular, of 
cattle, 436 
course, 437 
definition, 436 
diagnosis, 437 
etiology, 436 
natural infection, 436 
occurrence, 436 
prevention, 438 
symptoms, 436, 437 
treatment, 437, 438 
Variola, 339 
ovina, 340 
Vertigo, 244 
definition, 244 
diagnosis, 244 
etiology, 244 
occurrence, 244 
symptoms, 244 
treatment, 245 
Volvulus, 111 

W 

Warble fly, 268 

life history, 268, 269 

prevention, 269 

treatment, 269 
Wool eating, 188 

definition, 188 

diagnosis, 188 

etiology, 188 

occurrence, 188 

symptoms, 188 
Worm colic, 113, 114 



